International Standard Bible Encyclopedia
W
Wafer — Winter
Wafer
Wafer - wa'-fer.
See BREAD.
Wages
Wages - wa'-jez, wa'-jiz (chinnam, maskoreth, pe`ullah, sakhar, sakhar; misthos, opsonion): (1) Chinnam means "gratis," without cost or any advantage, for nought, or in vain; wages in the sense of reasonable return. Jeremiah pronounces woe upon him who "useth his neighbor's service without wages, and giveth him not his hire" (Jeremiah 22:13; the only place where the word is used). (2) Maskoreth means "reward" or "wages." Laban said to Jacob: "Shouldest thou therefore serve me for nought? Tell me, what shall thy wages be?" (Genesis 29:15). Jacob said, concerning Laban, speaking to Rachel and Leah: "Your father hath deceived me, and changed my wages ten times" (Genesis 31:7; compare Genesis 31:41). (3) Pe`ullah generally means "work," "labor," "reward," "wages." The old Levitical Law was insistent on honesty in wages and on promptness in payments: "The wages of a hired servant shall not abide with thee all night until the morning" (Leviticus 19:13). (4) Mistakker means "earning," "hire," "reward," "wages," from root sakhar, meaning "to hire," and has in it the idea of temporary purchase: "He that earneth wages earneth wages to put it into a bag with holes" (Haggai 1:6). (5) Sakhar means "payment of contract," in the material way of salary, maintenance, fare, and so compensation, reward, price, benefit, wages--seemingly wages received after an understanding as to time, manner and amount of payment. Laban (employer) said to Jacob (employee): "Appoint me thy wages, and I will give it" (Genesis 30:28); "If he said thus, The speckled shall be thy wages" (Genesis 31:8); Pharaoh's daughter said to Moses' mother: "Take this child away, and nurse it for me, and I will give thee thy wages" (Exodus 2:9); Nebuchadrezzar and his army served against Tyre, "yet had he no wages, nor his army" (Ezekiel 29:18), and the prey of Egypt "shall be the wages for his army" (Ezekiel 29:19); swift and sure judgment is predicted against "those that oppress the hireling in his wages, the widow, and the fatherless" (Malachi 3:5). (6) Misthos means either in a literal or figurative sense "pay for service," either primitive or beneficial, and so reward, hire, wages. In John 4:36 Jesus said, "He that reapeth receiveth wages, and gathereth fruit unto life eternal." 2 Peter 2:15 has changed "wages" (the King James Version) to "hire," reading "who loved the hire of wrongdoing." (7) Opsonion, meaning primarily "rations for soldiers" (opson being the word for cooked meat) and so "pay" or stipend, provision wages. In Luke 3:14 John said to the soldiers, "Be content with your wages"; "The wages of sin is death" (Romans 6:23); Paul said: "I robbed other churches, taking wages of them" (2 Corinthians 11:8); the same word in 1 Corinthians 9:7 is translated "charges."
The Bible refers to wages actual and wages figurative. Of actual wages there are three kinds: (1) money wages, (2) provision (usually food) wages, and (3) what may be called "exchange" wages, wages in kind, sometimes "human-kind," e.g. Jacob's wages from Laban. Often laborers and soldiers received both money and "keep" wages. The laborer in New Testament times received about 15 cents per day (the "shilling" of Matthew 20:2), besides in some cases his provisions. The old Law required daily payment, honesty in dealing, also sufficient food for the laborer.
It is practically impossible to test "Bible" wages by any of theories of modern economists. In this connection, however, mere mention of the six principal theories may be of interest. Concisely put, they are: (1) the wage-fund theory, (2) the standard-of-living theory, (3) the German-socialistic theory, (4) the production theory, (5) Henry George's theory, and (6) the laborer's value theory. The incidents in the Old Testament of Jacob and in the New Testament of Matthew 20:1-34 both show that the laborer was at the caprice of the employer. Therefore, we may designate the Bible law of wages as the "employer's theory."
William Edward Raffety
Wagon, Waggon
Wagon, Waggon - wag'-un.
See CART.
Wail, Wailing
Wail, Wailing - wal, wal'-ing.
See BURIAL,III , 2;IV , 4, 5, 6.
Wait
Wait - wat:
1. The Substantive: The word is used in the Old Testament both as a substantive add as a verb. In the New Testament it appears as a verb only. 'erebh, ma'arabh, mean a concealed hiding-place for purposes of sudden attack, an ambuscade. (1) "Lie in wait": "Abimelech rose up .... from lying in wait" (Judges 9:35 the King James Version); "When they .... abide in the covert to lie in wait" (Job 38:40). (2) "Lay wait": "They compassed him in, and laid wait for him" (Judges 16:2).
2. The Verb: (1) sharath, "to serve," "to minister," to act in the capacity of servant or attendant: "These waited on the king" (2 Chronicles 17:19). Used especially in this sense with regard to the ceremonial service of the host: "They shall go in to wait upon the service in the work of the tent of meeting" (Numbers 8:24; compare Numbers 8:25); "The Levites wait upon their business" (2 Chronicles 13:10 the King James Version). "Wait at" occurs in the same sense in the New Testament: "They which wait at (the Revised Version (British and American) "wait upon") the altar," etc. (1 Corinthians 9:13 the King James Version). (2) The simple verb is used to describe the longsuffering and patience of God toward His willful people: "And therefore will Yahweh wait, that he may be gracious unto you" (Isaiah 30:18); "When the longsuffering of God waited in the days of Noah" (apekdechomai, 1 Peter 3:20). (3) The most important and frequent use of the word "wait," however, is to define the attitude of a soul God-ward. It implies the listening ear, a heart responsive to the wooing of God, a concentration of the spiritual faculties upon heavenly things, the patience of faith, "the earnest expectation of the creation" (Romans 8:19). It describes an eager anticipation and yearning for the revelation of truth and love as it is in the Father. Thus: "My soul, wait thou .... for God only" (Psalms 69:5); "Our soul hath waited for Yahweh" (Psalms 33:20); "Mine eyes fail while I wait for my God" (Psalms 69:3); "Wait for Yahweh, and he will save thee" (Proverbs 20:22).
Also the New Testament thus: "Waiting for our adoption, to wit, the redemption of our body" (Romans 8:23); "For we through the Spirit by faith wait for the hope of righteousness" (Galatians 5:5). From various references in the New Testament there seems to have been in the days of Jesus a sect in whose name the word "wait" played an important part. Of the aged Simeon, who met Mary and Joseph when they brought the infant Jesus to the temple, it is said that he was "waiting for (the Revised Version (British and American) "looking for") the consolation of Israel" (Luke 2:25), that is, he was looking for the fulfillment of the Messianic promise. Again, after our Lord's crucifixion, when Joseph of Arimathea begged for the body of Jesus, we are told that he was one of those that "waited for the kingdom of God" (prosdechomai, Mark 15:43 the King James Version; Luke 23:51 the King James Version). It is thought by some authorities that this implies their having belonged to the sect of the Essenes. Epiphanius associates the sect with one which he names "Gortheni," whose title is derived from a word which means "to expect."
Arthur Walwyn Evans
Walk
Walk - wok (peripatein): Aside from its frequent occurrence in the usual sense, the word "walk" is used figuratively of conduct and of spiritual states. (1) Observance of laws or customs: "Thou teachest all the Jews who are among the Gentiles to forsake Moses, telling them not to circumcise their children, neither to walk after the customs" (Acts 21:21). (2) Of the spiritual life: "If we walk in the light, as he is in the light" (1 John 1:7); "That like as Christ was raised from the dead through the glory of the Father, so we also might walk in newness of life" (Romans 6:4); "Walk by the Spirit, and ye shall not fulfill the lust of the flesh" (Galatians 5:16); "For we walk by faith, not by sight" (2 Corinthians 5:7).
Russell Benjamin Miller
Wall
Wall - wol.
See ARCHITECTURE; CITY; FORTIFICATION; HOUSE; JERUSALEM; VILLAGE.
Wallet
Wallet - wol'-et, -it.
See SCRIP.
Wandering Stars
Wandering Stars - won'-der-ing.
See ASTRONOMY.
Wanderings of Israel
Wanderings of Israel - won'-der-ingz:
I. CONDITIONS
1. The Wilderness
2. Four Separate Regions Included
3. "The Sandy Tract"
4. Description of the Arabah
5. Physical Condition of the Wilderness
6. Difficulties Regarding the Numbers of Israel and Account of Tabernacle
7. Difficulty as to Number of Wagons
8. Fauna of the Desert
9. Characteristic Names of the Districts
II. FIRST JOURNEY
1. Mode of Traveling
2. The Route: the First Camp
3. Waters of Marah
4. Camp by the Red Sea
5. The Route to Sinai
III. SECOND JOURNEY
1. The Stay at Sinai
2. Site of Kadesh-barnea
3. The Route: Hazeroth to Moseroth
4. The Camps between Hazeroth and Moseroth
IV. THE THIRTY-EIGHT YEARS
1. The History
2. The Camps Visited
V. THE FINAL JOURNEY
1. The Route
2. The Five Stations to the Border of Moab
3. From Iyim to Arnon
4. The Message to Sihon
5. From the Arnon to Shittim
6. Review
I. Conditions. 1. The Wilderness: A consideration of the geography and natural features of the desert between Egypt and Edom, in which the Hebrews are said to have wandered for 40 years, has a very important bearing on the question of the genuineness of the Pentateuch narrative. This wilderness forms a wedge between the Gulfs of Suez and `Aqabah, tapering South to the granite mountains near Sinai. It has a base 175 miles long East and West on the North, and the distance North and South is 250 miles. The area is thus over 20,000 square miles, or double the size of the Promised Land East and West of Jordan. On the North of this desert lie the plains of Gaza and Gerar, and the Neghebh or "dry region" (the south; see Numbers 13:17 the Revised Version (British and American)), including the plateau and low hills round Beersheba.
2. Four Separate Regions Included: There are four separate regions included in the area, the largest part (13,000 square miles) being a plateau which on the South rises 3,000 to 4,000 feet above the sea, and shelves gently toward the Philistine plains. It is drained into the broad Wady el-`Arish, named from el-`Arish ("the booth"), a station on the Mediterranean coast South of Gaza, where this valley enters the sea. In this direction several prominent mountains occur (Jebel Yeleq, Jebel Hilal, and Jebel Ikhrimm), while further East--near the site of the Western Kadesh--there is a step on the plateau culminating on the South in Jebel el-Mukhrah; but none of these ranges appears to be more than about 4,000 feet above the sea. The plateau is known as Badiet et-Tih ("the pathless waste"), and though some Arab geographers of the Middle Ages speak of it as the desert "of the wandering of the Beni Israil," they refer to the whole region as far as `Aqabah, and not to the plateau alone. The elevation on the South forms a very steep ascent or "wall" (see SHUR), bending round on the West and East, and rising above the shore plains near Suez and the `Arabah near Edom. Near the center of the plateau is the small fort of Nakhl ("the palms"), where water is found; but, as a whole, the Tih is waterless, having very few springs, the most important being those near the western Kadesh (`Ain Kadis); for Rehoboth belongs to the region of the Neghebh rather than to the Tih. In winter, when very heavy rains occur, the valleys are often flooded suddenly by a seil, or "torrent," which is sometimes 10 feet deep for a few hours. Such a seil has been known to sweep away trees, flocks, and human beings; yet, in consequence of the hard rocky surface, the flood rushes away to the sea and soon becomes a mere rivulet. Where soft soil is found, in the valleys, grass will grow and afford pasture, but even early in spring the Arabs begin to suffer from want of water, which only remains in pits and in water holes among rocks. They have then much difficulty in watering their goats and sheep.
3. "The Sandy Tract": Below the Tih escarpment on the South is another region called Debbet er-ramleh ("the sandy tract"), which is only 20 miles across at its widest; and to the West are the sandy plains, with limestone foothills, stretching East of the Bitter Lakes and of the Gulf of Suez. The third region consists of the granite chain (see SINAI) which rises to 8,550 feet above the sea, and some 6,000 feet above its valleys, near Jebel Musa. Parts of this region are better watered than is any part of the Tih, and the main route from Egypt to Edom has consequently always run through it.
4. Description of the Arabah: The fourth region is that of the `Arabah, or broad valley (10 miles wide) between the Gulf of `Aqabah and the Dead Sea. It has a watershed some 700 feet high above the Gulf (South of the neighborhood of Petra); and North of this shed the water flows to the Dead Sea 1,292 feet below the Mediterranean. The total length of this valley is 120 miles, the watershed being (near the Edomite chain) about 45 miles North of `Aqabah. The head of the Gulf was once farther North; and, near `Ain Ghudian (probably Eziongeber) and `Ain et-Tabah (probably Jotbath), there is a mud flat which becomes a lake in winter--about 20 miles from the sea. Lower down--at `Ain edition Deffiyeh--there is another such flat, the head being 10 miles from `Aqabah. The whole region is much better watered than either of the three preceding districts, having springs at the foot of the mountains on either side; and the `Arabah is thus the best pastoral country within the limits described. It now supports a nomad population of about 2,000 or 3,000 souls (Chaiwatat and `Alawin Arabs), while the region round Sinai has some 2,000 souls (Towarah Arabs): the whole of the Tih has probably not more than 5,000 inhabitants; for the stronger tribes (`Azazimeh and Terabin) live chiefly between Gaza and Beersheba. These Arabs have goats, sheep and camels, but cattle are only found near Beersheba. The flocks are watered daily--as in Palestine generally--and are sometimes driven 20 miles in winter to find pasture and water. The water is also brought on donkeys and camels to the camps, and carried in goatskin bags on a journey through waterless districts.
See also ARABAH.
5. Physical Condition of the Wilderness: There is no reason to think that the conditions at the time of the Exodus differed materially from those of the present time. The Arabs have cut down a good many acacia trees for firewood in recent times, but the population is too small materially to affect the vegetation. The annual rainfall--except in years of drought--is from 10 to 20 inches, and snow falls in winter on the Tih, and whitens Sinai and the Edomite mountains for many days. The acacia, tamarisk and palm grow in the valleys. At Wady Feiran there are said to be 5,000 date palms, and they occur also in the `Arabah and the Edomite gorges, while the white broom (1 Kings 19:5, the King James Version "juniper") grows on the Tih plateau. This Tih plateau is the bed of an ancient ocean which once surrounded the granite mountains of Sinai. It was upheaved probably in the Miocene age, long before man appeared on earth. The surface formation (Hull, Memoir on the Geology and Geography of Arabia-Petraea, etc., 1886) consists of Cretaceous limestones of the Eocene and Chalk ages, beneath which lies the Nubian sandstone of the Greensand period, which is also visible all along the route from Sinai to `Aqabah, and on the east side of the Dead Sea, and even at the foot of the Gilead plateau. These beds are all visible in the Tih escarpment; and North of Sinai there are yet older formations of limestone, and the "desert sandstone" of the Carboniferous period. Since the conditions of natural water-supply depend entirely on geological formation and on rainfall, neither of which can be regarded as having changed since the time of Moses, the scientific conclusion is that the desert thus described represents that of his age, This, as we shall see, affects our conclusion as to the route followed by Israel from Egypt to the `Arabah; for, on the direct route from Suez to Nakhl (about 70 miles), there is no water for the main part of the way, so it has to be carried on camels; while, East of Nakhl, in a distance of 80 miles, there is only one known supply in a well (Bir eth-Themed) a few miles South of the road. This route was thus practically impassable for the Hebrews and their beasts, whereas the Sinai route was passable. Thus when Wellhausen (History of Israel and Judah, 343) speaks of Israel as going straight to Kadesh, and not making a "digression to Sinai," he seems not to have considered the topography as described by many modern travelers. For not only was the whole object of their journey first to visit the "Mount of God," but it also lay on the most practicable route to Kadesh.
6. Difficulties Regarding the Numbers of Israel and Account of Tabernacle
It is true that there are certain difficulties as regards both the numbers of Israel and the account of the tabernacle. The first of these objections has been considered elsewhere (see EXODUS). The detailed account of the tabernacle (Exodus 25:1-40 through Exodus 28:1-43; Exodus 36:1-38 through Exodus 39:1-43) belongs to a part of the Pentateuch which many critical writers assign to a later date than that of the old narrative and laws (Exodus 1:1-22 through Exodus 24:1-18). The description may seem more applicable to the semi-permanent structure that existed at Shiloh and Nob, than to the original "tent of meeting" in the desert. On the other hand, living so long in civilized Egypt, the Hebrews no doubt had among them skilled artificers like Bezalel. The Egyptians used acacia wood for furniture; and though the desert acacia does not grow to the size which would furnish planks 1 1/4 cubits broad, it may be that these were made up by joiner's work such as the ancients were able to execute. There was plenty of gold in Egypt and Asia, but none near Sinai. It is suggested, however, that the ornaments of which the Hebrews spoiled the Egyptians were presented, like the stuffs (Exodus 36:6) prepared for the curtains--just as the Arabs weave stuffs for their tents--and they might have served to spread a thin layer of gold over acacia boards, and on the acacia altar. It is more difficult to understand (on our present information) where silver enough for the bases (Exodus 26:25) would be found. Copper (Exodus 27:4) presents less difficulty, since there were copper mines in Wady Nucb near Serabit el Khadim. The women gave gold earrings to Aaron (Exodus 32:3) for the Golden Calf, but this may have been a small object. Eusebius (in Onomasticon), referring to Dizahab, "the place of gold" (Deuteronomy 1:1), now Dhahab ("gold") on the west shore of the Gulf of `Aqabah, East of Sinai, mentions the copper mines of Punon; and thought that veins of gold might also have existed in the mountains of Edom in old times. A little gold is also found in Midian. We know that the Egyptians and Assyrians carried arks and portable altars with their armies, and a great leather tent of Queen Habasu actually exists. Thothmes III, before the Exodus, speaks of "seven tent poles covered with plates of gold from the tent of the hostile king" which he took as spoil at Megiddo. The art of engraving gems was also already ancient in the time of Moses.
7. Difficulty as to Number of Wagons: Another difficulty is to understand how six ox wagons (Numbers 7:3) sufficed to carry all the heavy planks and curtains, and vessels of the tabernacle; and though the use of ox carts, and of four-wheeled wagons also, is known to have been ancient in Asia, there are points on even the easiest route which it would seem impossible for wagons to pass, especially on the rough road through Edom and Moab. On the other hand, we know that an Egyptian Mohar did drive his chariot over the mountains in Palestine in the reign of Rameses II, though it was finally broken near Joppa.
8. Fauna of the Desert: Whatever be thought as to these questions, there are indications in other passages of actual acquaintance with the desert fauna. Although the manna, as described (Exodus 16:31), is said not to resemble the sweet gum which exudes from the twigs of the tamarisk (to which it has been compared by some), which melts in the sun, and is regarded as a delicacy by the Arabs, yet the quail (Exodus 16:13; Numbers 11:31) still migrate from the sea northward across the desert in spring, flying low by night. The birds noticed (Leviticus 11:1-47; Deuteronomy 14:1-29) include--as Canon Tristram remarked--species found on the seashores and in the wilderness, such as the cormorant, pelican and gull; the ostrich (in the desert East of Moab); the stork, the crane and the heron which migrate from Africa to the Jordan valley. It is notable that, except the heron (Assyrian anpatu), the Hebrew names are not those used by later Assyrians. The mammals include the boar which loves the marshes, and the hyrax (the King James Version "coney") which still exists near Sinai and in the desert of Judah, with the desert hare. It is remarkable that in Dt (Deuteronomy 14:5), besides the ibex and the bubak, two species are added (the fallow deer, Hebrew 'ayyal, the King James Version "hart," and the roebuck, Hebrew yachmur, Arabic yachmur, the King James Version "fallow deer") which are not desert animals. The former occurs at Tabor; the latter was found by the present writer in 1873 on Carmel, and is since known in Gilead and Lebanon. But Deuteronomy refers to conditions subsequent to the capture of Gilead and Bashan.
9. Characteristic Names of the Districts: The various districts in the desert receive characteristic names in the account of the Exodus. Thus, Shur is the coast region under the "wall" of the Tih, and Sin (Exodus 17:1; Numbers 33:11) was the "glaring" desert (see SINAI) of white chalk, West of Sinai. Paran is noticed 10 times, as a desert and mountain region (Deuteronomy 33:2; Habakkuk 3:3) between Sinai and Kadesh. The name seems to survive in Wady Feiran West of Sinai. It means some kind of "burrows," whether referring to mines, caves or water pits, according to the usual explanation; but in Arabic the root also means "hot," which is perhaps more likely. The term seems to be of very wide extension, and to refer to the Tih generally (Genesis 21:21); for David (1 Samuel 25:1) in Paran was not far from Maon and Carmel South of Hebron, and the same general application (1 Kings 11:18) is suggested in another passage. Finally the desert of Zin (tsin) is noticed 9 times, and very clearly lay close to Kadesh-barnea and East of Paran (Numbers 13:21; 20:1; 34:3; Deuteronomy 32:51; Joshua 15:3). The rabbis rendered it "palm" (tsin), which is appropriate to the `Arabah valley which still retains the old name mentioned in Deuteronomy 1:1. These various considerations as to the conditions to be fulfilled may serve to show that the difficulties often raised, as to the historic character of the Exodus narrative, have been much overstated; and a further study of the various journeys serves to confirm this view.
II. First Journey. 1. Mode of Traveling: Israel left Egypt in the early part of April (after the 14th of Abib) and reached Sinai about the 14th or 19th of the 3rd month (Exodus 19:1), or at the end of May. They thus took two months to accomplish a journey of about 117 miles; but from the first camp after crossing the Red Sea to that in the plain before the Mount ten marches are mentioned, giving intervals of less than 12 miles between each camp. Thus they evidently remained in camp for at least 50 days of the time, probably at the better supplied springs, including that of the starting-point, and those at Elim and Rephidim, in order to rest their flocks. The camps were probably not all crowded round one spring, but spread over a distance of some miles. The Arabs indeed do not camp or keep their flocks close to the waters, probably in order not to defile them, but send the women with donkeys to fetch water, and drive the sheep and goats to the spring or well in the cool of the afternoon. Thus we read that Amalek "smote the hindmost" (Deuteronomy 25:18), which may either mean the stragglers unable to keep up when "weary," or perhaps those in the camp most in the rear.
2. The Route: the First Camp: The route of Israel has been very carefully described by Robinson (BR, 1838, I, 60-172; II, 95-195), and his account is mainly followed in this and the next sections. We may place the first camp (see EXODUS), between the springs which supply Suez (`Ain Nab'a and `Ayyun Musa), which are about 4 miles apart. The first of these is scooped out among the sand hillocks, and bubbles up in a basin some 6 ft. deep. The water is brackish, but supplies as many as 200 camel loads at once for Suez. At `Ayyun Musa ("the springs of Moses") there are seven springs, some being small and scooped in the sand. A few palms occur near the water (which is also brackish), and a little barley is grown, while in recent times gardens of pomegranates have been cultivated (A. E. Haynes, Man-Hunting in the Desert, 1894, 106), which, with the palms, give a grateful shade.
3. Waters of Marah: From this base Israel marched "three days in the wilderness" of Shur, "and found no water" (Exodus 15:22). They no doubt carried it with them, and may have sent back camels to fetch it. Even when they reached the waters of Marah ("the bitter") they found them undrinkable till sweetened. The site of Marah seems clearly to have been at `Ain Chawarah ("the white chalk spring"), named from the chalky mound beside it. This is 36 miles from `Ayyun Musa, giving an average daily march of 12 miles. There is no water on the route, though some might have been fetched from `Ain Abu Jerad in Wady Sudr, and from the small spring of Abu Suweirah near the sea. Burckhardt thought that the water was sweetened from the berries of the Gharqad shrub (which have an acid juice) on the thorny bushes near the spring. This red berry ripens, however, in June. There is no doubt, on the other hand, that the best treatment for brack water is the addition of an acid taste. The Arabs consider the waters of this spring to be the most bitter in the country near.
4. Camp by the Red Sea: From Marah, the next march led to Elim ("the palms"), where were "twelve springs (not "wells") of water and seventy palms." The site seems clearly to have been in Wady Gharandil, where a brook is found fed by springs of better water than that of Marah. The distance is only about 6 miles, or an easy march, and palm trees exist near the waters. Israel then entered the desert of Sin, stretching from Elim to Sinai, reaching a camp "by the Red Sea" (Numbers 33:10) just a month after leaving Egypt (Exodus 16:1). The probable site is near the mouth of Wady et-Taiyibeh ("the goodly valley"), which is some 10 or 12 miles from the springs of Gharandil. The foothills here project close to the coast, and North of the valley is Jebel Chammam Far'aun ("the mountain of Pharaoh's hot bath"), named from hot sulphur springs. The water in Wady et-Taiyibeh is said to be better than that of Marah, and this is the main Arab watering-place after passing Gharandil. A small pond is here described by Burckhardt at el-Murkhat, in the sandstone rock near the foot of the mountains, but the water is bitter and full of weeds, moss and mud. The site is close to a broad shore plain stretching South Here two roads diverge toward Sinai, which lies about 65 miles to the Southeast, and in this interval (Numbers 33:11-15) five stations are named, giving a daily march of 13 miles. The Hebrews probably took the lower and easier road, especially as it avoided the Egyptian mines of Wady el-Maghdrah ("valley of the cave") and their station at Serabit el-Khadim ("pillars of the servant"), where--though this is not certain--there may have been a detachment of bowmen guarding the mines.
5. The Route to Sinai: None of the five camps on this section of the route is certainly known. Dophkah apparently means "overdriving" of flocks, and Alush (according to the rabbis) "crowding," thus indicating the difficulties of the march. Rephidim ("refreshments") contrasts with these names and indicates a better camp. The site, ever since the 4th century AD, has always been shown in Wady Feiran (Eusebius, Onomasticon, under the word "Rephidim")--an oasis of date palms with a running stream. The distance from Sinai is about 18 miles, or 14 from the western end of the broad plain er-Rachah in which Israel camped in sight of Horeb; and the latter name (Exodus 17:6) included the Desert of Sinai even as far West as Rephidim. Here the rod of Moses, smiting the rock, revealed to the Hebrews an abundant supply, just as they despaired of water. Here apparently they could rest in comfort for some three weeks before the final march to the plain "before the mount" (Exodus 19:1-2), which they reached two months after leaving Egypt. Here Amalek--coming down probably from the mines--attacked them in the rear. Meanwhile there was ample time for the news of their journey to reach Midian, and for the family of Moses (Exodus 18:1-5) to reach Sinai. On one of the low hills near Wady Feiran, Moses watched the doubtful fight and built his stone altar. A steep pass separates the oasis from the Rachah plain, and baggage camels usually round it on the North by Wady esh-Sheikh, which may have been the actual route. The Rephidim oasis has a fertile alluvial soil, and the spot was chosen by Christian hermits perhaps as early as the 3rd century AD.
III. Second Journey. 1. The Stay at Sinai: Israel remained at Mt. Sinai for 10 months, leaving it after the Passover of the "second year" (Numbers 9:1-3), and apparently soon after the feast, since, when they again witnessed the spring migration of the quail (Numbers 11:31) "from the sea"--as they had done in the preceding year (Exodus 16:13) farther West--they were already about 20 miles on their road, at Kibroth-hattaavah, or "the graves of lust."
2. Site of Kadesh-barnea: (1) In order to follow their journey it is necessary to fix the site of Kadesh-barnea to which they were going, and there has been a good deal of confusion as to this city since, in 1844, John Rowlands discovered the site of the western Kadesh, at `Ain Qadis in the northern part of the Tih. Robinson pointed out (BR, II, 194, note 3) that this site could not possibly be right for Kadesh-barnea; and, though it was accepted by Professor Palmer, who visited the vicinity in January, 1870, and has been advocated by Henry Clay Trumbull (Kadesh-barnea, 1884), the identification makes hopeless chaos of the Old Testament topography. The site of `Ain Qadis is no doubt that of the Kadesh of Hagar (see SHUR), and a tradition of her presence survives among the Arabs, probably derived from one of the early hermits, since a small hermitage was found by Palmer in the vicinity (Survey of Western Palestine, Special Papers, 1881, 19). But this spring is not said to have been at the "city" of Kadesh-barnea, which is clearly placed at the southeast corner of the land of Israel (Joshua 15:3), while, in the same chapter (Joshua 15:23), another site called Kedesh is mentioned, with Adadah (`Ada'deh 7 miles Southeast of Arad) and Hazor (at Jebel Chadireh); this Kedesh may very well have been at the western Kadesh.
(2) Kadesh-barnea is noticed in 10 passages of the Old Testament, and in 16 other verses is called Kadesh only. The name probably means "the holy place of the desert of wandering," and--as we shall see--the wanderings of Israel were confined to the `Arabah. The place is described as "a city in the uttermost .... border" of Edom (Numbers 20:16), Edom being the "red land" of Mt. Seir, so called from its red sandstones, as contrasted with the white Tih limestone. It is also very clearly placed (Numbers 34:3-4) South of the Dead Sea (compare Joshua 15:3), while Ezekiel also (47:19) gives it as the southeastern limit of the land, opposed to Tamar (Tamrah near Gaza) as the southeastern border town. A constant tradition, among Jews and Christians alike, identifies Kadesh-barnea with Petra, and this as early as the time of Josephus, who says that Aaron died on a mountain near Petra (Ant., IV, iv, 7), and that the old name of Petra was Arekem (vii, 1). The Targum of Onkelos (on Numbers 34:4) renders Kadesh-barnea by "Rekem of the G'aia" and this name--meaning "many-colored"--was due to the many-colored rocks near Petra, while the g'aia or "outcry" is probably that of Israel at Meribah-kadesh (Numbers 27:14), and may have some connection with the name of the village el-Jii, at Petra, which is now called Wady Musa ("the valley of Moses") by the Arabs, who have a tradition that the gorge leading to Petra was cloven by the rod of Moses when he struck the rock at the "waters of strife" (Numbers 27:14), forming the present stream which represents that of "Meribah of Kadesh." Eusebius also (in Onomasticon under the word "Barne") connects Kadesh with Petra, and this traditional site so fully answers the requirements of the journey in question that it may be accepted as one of the best-fixed points on the route, especially as the position of Hazeroth agrees with this conclusion. Hazeroth (Numbers 11:35; 12:16; 33:17; Deuteronomy 1:1) means "enclosures," and the name survives at `Ain Chadrah ("spring of the enclosure") about 30 miles Northeast of Mt. Sinai on the way to the `Arabah. It was the 3rd camp from Sinai, the 1st being Taberah (Numbers 11:3) and the 2nd Kibroth-hattaavah (Numbers 11:35), giving a daily march of 10 miles.
See KADESH-BARNEA.
3. The Route: Hazeroth to Moseroth: After passing Hazeroth (Numbers 12:16; 13:3) the journey appears to have been leisurely, and Israel probably camped for some time in the best pastures of the `Arabah. For the spies were sent from Paran near Hazeroth to explore the route to Kadesh, and to examine the "south country" through which Israel hoped to enter Palestine (Numbers 13:17, 21). They explored this district (Numbers 13:21; 32:8) from "the wilderness of Zin," or otherwise "from Kadesh-barnea," on the East, to Rehob--probably Rehoboth (now er-Ruheibeh)--on the West; and--having been absent 40 days (Numbers 13:25)--after visiting Hebron (Numbers 13:22) they returned by the direct route leading South of Arad (Tell `Arad) to Petra, which road is called (Numbers 21:1) the "way of the spies." On their return, in the season of "first-ripe grapes" (Numbers 13:20), they found Israel at Kadesh (Numbers 13:26). No place North of Hebron is mentioned in the account of their explorations, and it is difficult to suppose that, in 40 days, they could have reached the Syrian city of Hamath, which is some 350 miles North of Petra, and have returned thence. The definition of Rehob (mentioned before Hebron) as being `on the coming to Hamath' (Numbers 13:21) is best explained as a scribe's error, due to an indistinct manuscript, the original reading being chalatseth, and referring to the classical Elussa (now Khalasah) which lies 10 miles North of Rehoboth on the main road to Beersheba and Hebron. Israel left Sinai in the spring, after the Passover, and was near Hazeroth in the time of the quail migration. Hazeroth possesses the only perennial supply of water in the region, from its vicinity the spies set forth in August.
4. The Camps between Hazeroth and Moseroth: Most of the sites along this route are unknown, and their position can only be gathered from the meaning of the names; but the 6th station from Hazeroth was at Mt. Shepher (Numbers 33:23), and may have left its name corrupted into Tell el-`Acfar (or `Asfar), the Hebrew meaning "the shining hill," and the Arabic either the same or else "the yellow." This site is 60 miles from Hazeroth, giving a daily march of 10 miles. As regards the other stations, Rithmah means "broomy," referring to the white desert broom; Rimmon-perez was a "cloven height," and Libnab a "white" chalky place; Rissah means "dewy," and Kehelathah, "gathering." From Mt. Shepher the distance to the vicinity of Mt. Hor is about 55 miles, and seven stations are named, giving an average march of 8 miles. The names are Haradah (Numbers 33:24), "fearful," referring to a mountain; Makheloth, "gatherings"; Tahath--probably "below"--marking the descent into the `Arabah; Terah, "delay," referring to rest in the better pastures; Mithkah, "sweetness" of pasture or of water; Hashmonah, "fatness"; and Moseroth; probably meaning "the boundaries," near Mt. Hor. These names, though now lost, agree well with a journey through a rugged region of white limestone and yellow sandstone, followed by a descent into the pastoral valley of the `Arabah. The distances also are all probable for flocks.
IV. The Thirty-eight Years. 1. The History: From the time of their first arrival at Kadesh-barnea, in the autumn of the 2nd year, to the day that the Hebrews crossed the brook Zered in Moab on their final march, is said to have been a period of 38 years (Deuteronomy 2:14), during which the first generation died out, and a strong race of desert warriors succeeded it. During this period Israel lived in the nomadic state, like modern Arabs who change camp according to the season within well-defined limits, visiting the higher pastures in summer, and wintering in the lower lands. On their first arrival near Kadesh-barnea, they were discouraged by the report of the spies, and rebelled; but when they were ordered to turn South "by the way of the Red Sea" or Gulf of `Aqabah, they made an unsuccessful attempt to enter Palestine by the way of the spies (Numbers 14:25-45). They were discomfited by Amalekites at Hormah ("cutting off"), which place is otherwise called Zephath (Judges 1:17). Here also they were again defeated by the king of Arad (Numbers 21:1, 3) in the early autumn of the 40th year of wandering. This site may well be placed at the ascent now called Nuqb es-Cufah ("the pass of Zephath"), which preserves the Hebrew name, 45 miles Northwest of Mt. Hor, on the main road from Hebron to Petra. The route is well watered, and `Ain Yemen is a spring at the foot of this ascent leading to the higher terrace of the Tih. Arad lies North of the road, and its Canaanite king no doubt marched South some 40 miles, to defend the top of the ascent down which the Amalekites had driven the first generation of Hebrews, who returned to the Kadesh-barnea camp.
2. The Camps Visited: We are not left without any notice of the stations which Israel visited, and no doubt revisited annually, during the 38 years of nomadic life. We have in fact three passages which appear to define the limits of their wanderings. (1) In the first of these (Numbers 33:31-36) we find that they left Moseroth, near Mt. Hor, the site of which latter has always been shown--since the time of Josephus at least--at the remarkable mountain West of Petra, now called Jebel Haran ("Aaron's Mountain"); thence they proceeded to the wells of the Bene-jaakan, to Hor-haggidgad, and to Jotbathah. Hor-haggidgad (or Gudgodah, Deuteronomy 10:7) signifies apparently the "hill of thunder," and the word is not in any way connected with the name of Wady Ghadaghid ("the valley of failing waters"), applying to a ravine West of the `Arabah; for the Hebrew and Arabic words have not a letter in common. The site of Jotbathah, which was in "a land of brooks of waters" (Deuteronomy 10:7), is, on the other hand, pretty clearly to be fixed at `Ain et-Tabah ("the good spring"), 28 miles North of 'Aqabah, and about 40 along the road from Mt. Hor. This spring, near a palm grove, feeds the winter lake of et-Tabah to its West in the 'Arabah. The next station was Abronah ("the crossing"), and if this refers to crossing the `Arabah to the western slopes, we are naturally brought--on the return journey--to Ezion-geber, at `Ain-ghudian (the usual identification), which springs from the western slopes of the Tih on the side of the lake opposite to Jotbathah. Thence the migrants gradually returned to Kadesh.
(2) The second passage (Deuteronomy 10:6-7). is one of many geographical notes added to the narrative of the wanderings, and gives the names in a different order--Wells of the Bene-jaakan, Moserah, Gudgodah, and Jotbathah--but this has little importance, as the camps, during 38 years, would often be at these springs.
(3) The third passage is in the preface to Deuteronomy (1:1,2), which enumerates the various places where Moses spoke to Israel at various times after leaving Sinai. These include the region East of Jordan, the wilderness, the `Arabah, "over against Suph," with all the district between Paran and Tophel (now Tufileh, on the southern border of Moab), as well as Laban (probably the Libnah of Numbers 33:20), Hazeroth, and Dizahab which may be Dhahab on the seashore East of Sinai. This list, with the valuable notes added showing that Kadesh-barnea was 11 days from Horeb in the direction of Mt. Seir, refers to speeches down to the last days of Moses' life. The wanderings of the 38 years do not include the march through Edom and Moab; and, though it is of course possible that they may have extended to Hazeroth and Sinai, it seems more probable that they were confined to the `Arabah between Petra and Jotbathah. Elath (now `Aqabah), on the eastern shore at the head of the gulfs, is not mentioned; for the raised beach South of the Lake of Jotbathah would not give pasture. In summer the camps would be on the western slopes of the valley, where grass might be found in April; and the annual migrations were thus within the limits of some 500 square miles, which is about the area now occupied by a strong tribe among Arabs.
V. The Final Journey. 1. The Route: In the 1st month of the 40th year (Numbers 20:1) Israel was at Kadesh in the desert of Zin, where Miriam was buried. They were troubled once more by want of water, till Moses smote the rock of Meribah ("strife"). They were commanded to keep peace with their relatives of Edom and Moab, whose lands were not attacked by the Hebrews till the time of Saul, and of David and his successors. They camped on the border of Kadesh, desiring to reach the main road to Moab through the city; and, when this was refused by the king of Edom, they withdrew a few miles West to Mt. Hor. Here Aaron was buried, and was mourned for 30 days (Numbers 20:29), after which the 2nd attempt to reach Hebron by the main road (Numbers 21:1) was also repulsed. Since, on this occasion, Israel remained "many days" in Kadesh (Deuteronomy 1:46) and left it less than 38 years after they first reached it in autumn, it would seem that they may have started in August, and have taken about a month to reach the brook Zered; but only five stations are noticed (Numbers 21:10-12; Numbers 33:41-44) on the way. They are not said--in any passage--to have gone to Elath, but they turned "from mount Hor by the way to the Red Sea, to compass the land of Edom" (Numbers 21:4), or, as otherwise stated (Deuteronomy 2:8), they went "from the way of the Arabah" on the road which led "from Elath and from Ezion-geber"; and thus, starting on the "way to the Red Sea," they "compassed mount Seir many days," turning "northward" by the "way of the wilderness of Moab" (Deuteronomy 2:1, 8) after passing through the coast of Edom (Deuteronomy 2:4).
2. The Five Stations to the Border of Moab: If the list of five stations is complete, we may suppose that they left the `Arabah road not many miles South of Petra, striking East by an existing road leading to Ma'an, and thus gaining the high plateau above Petra to the East, and reaching the present Chaj route. This view is confirmed by the notice of Punon as the 2nd camp, if we accept the statement of Eusebius (Onomasticon, under the word "Phinon"); for he appears to have known it as an Edomite village North of Petra, in the desert, where convicts were employed digging copper. The name, however, has not been recovered. The preceding camp at Zalmonah suggests some "gloomy" valley leading up to the Edomite plateau. North of Punon, the 3rd camp was at Oboth ("water bags"), and the 4th was at Iyim or Iye-abarim ("the ruins" or "the ruins of the crossings"), the site of which is pretty certainly at `Aimeh, a few miles North of Tophel. The total distance thus seems to have been about 60 miles for four marches, or 15 miles a day. Iyim was "in the border of Moab" (Numbers 33:44) and in the desert facing Moab, in the East (Numbers 21:11).
3. From Iyim to Arnon: Here therefore Israel left Edom; and between Iyim and the river Arnon, in a distance of about 32 miles, only one station is mentioned, being at the valley of Zered (Numbers 21:12; Deuteronomy 2:13-14). This has usually been placed at Wady el-Chesy ("the pebbly valley"), which flows into the Dead Sea, having its head near Iyim; but this is evidently too far South, and it is no doubt the great gorge at Kerak that is intended, having its head close to the Chaj road, halfway from Iyim to Arnon, giving a daily march of 16 miles. The traditional identification of the Arnon with Wady Mojib is rendered certain by the positions of Diban (Dhiban) and Aroer (`Ar`air) close by. It was the border of the Amorites, who had driven the Moabites South of this river (Numbers 21:13; Deuteronomy 2:36), depriving them of their best lands which stretched to Heshbon. These Amorites were apparently recent intruders who, with the Hittites (see HITTITES), had invaded Damascus and Bashan from North Syria, and who no doubt had thus brought the fame of Balaam from Pethor (Numbers 22:5), on the Euphrates near Carchemish.
4. The Message to Sihon: The Hebrews were now a strong people fit for war, and Moses sent messengers from the "wilderness of Kedemoth" (Deuteronomy 2:26) to Sihon in Heshbon, demanding a peaceful passage through his lands, such as had been accomplished through Edom and Moab. Kedemoth ("the Eastern Lands") was evidently the desert of Moab.
It was objected, by Colenso, to the narrative of the Pentateuch that, since Israel only reached the brook Zered in autumn of the 40th year, only six months are left for the conquest of North Moab, Gilead and Bashan. But it must be remembered that the Hebrews left all their impedimenta in the "plains of Moab" (Numbers 22:1) opposite Jericho at Shittim, so that the advance of their army in Gilead and Bashan was unimpeded. The Assyrians, in later times, covered in a season much longer distances than are attributed to Hebrew conquerors, and the six months leave quite enough time for the two missions sent from Moab (Numbers 22:5-36) to fetch Balaam.
5. From the Arnon to Shittim: (1) It is notable that, for the march from the Arnon to Shittim, we have two lists of stations. That which is said to have been written down by Moses himself (Numbers 33:45-49) mentions only four stations in a distance of about 25 miles--namely Dibon-gad, Almon-diblathaim, Nebo and the plains of Moab, where the camps were placed at various waters from Beth-jeshimoth (Sueimeh) on the northeastern shore of the Dead Sea to Abelshittim ("the Meadow of Acacias"), now called the Ghor es-Seiseban, or "Valley of Acacias." In this area of 50 square miles there were four running streams, besides springs, and excellent pasture for flocks. This therefore was the headquarters of the nation during the Amorite war.
(2) In the 2nd list (Numbers 21:13-20) we read of a still more gradual and cautious advance in the Amorite lands, and this may represent the march of the main body following the men of war. Leaving the Arnon, they reached "a well" (Beer), probably near Dibon, this being one of those shallow water pits which the Arabs still scoop out in the valleys when the water runs below the surface. Between Arnon and Pisgah (or Nebo) no less than five stations are noticed in about 20 miles, namely Beer, Mattanah ("the gift"), Nahaliel ("the valley of God"), Bamoth (or Bamoth-Baal (Numbers 22:41), "the monuments of Baal"), and Pisgah (Jebel Neba). Of these only the last is certainly known, but the central station at Nahaliel may be placed at the great gorge of the Zerqa Ma`ain, the road from Dibon to Nebo crossing its head near Beth-meon. There was plenty of water in this vicinity. The last stage of Israel's march thus seems to represent a program of only about 4 miles a day, covered by the more rapid advance of the fighting men; and no doubt the women, children and flocks were not allowed to proceed at all until, at least, Sihon had been driven from Heshbon (Numbers 21:21-25).
6. Review: We have thus considered every march made by the Hebrews, from Egypt to Shittim, by the light of actual knowledge of their route. We have found no case in which the stations are too far apart for the passage of their beasts, and no discrepancies between any of the accounts when carefully considered. If, as some critical writers think, the story of the spies and the list of camps said to have been written down by Moses are to be attributed to a Hebrew priest writing in Babylonia, we cannot but wonder how he came to be so accurately informed as to the topography of the wilderness, its various regions, its water-supply and its natural products. It does not seem necessary to suppose a "double source," because, in the spring of two successive years, the manna is noticed, and Israel is recorded as having eaten the quail flying (as now) by night to the Jordan valley from Africa. The march was not continuous, and plenty of time is left, by the recorded dates, for the resting of the flocks at such waters as those of Elim, Rephidim and Hazeroth. The wanderings of the 38 years represent a nomadic life in the best pastures of the region, in and near the `Arabah. Here the new race grew up--hardy as the Arabs of today. When they left Egypt the Pharaoh still had a firm hold on the "way of the Philistines," and the Canaanites owned his sway. But 40 years later Egypt was defeated by the Amorites, and the forces of the Pharaoh were withdrawn from Jerusalem after suffering defeat in Bashan (see Tell el-Amarna Letters, number 64, British Museum, where no less than nine known places near Ashteroth and Edrei are noticed); general chaos then resulted in Southern Palestine, when the `Abiri (or Hebrews) appeared from Seir, and "destroyed all the rulers" (see EXODUS). This then, was the historic opportunity for the defeat of the Amorites, and for Joshua's conquest of the Promised Land.
C. R. Conder
War, Man of
War, Man of - ('ish milchamah):
"Yahweh is a man of war:
Yahweh is his name" (Exodus 15:3).
In early Israel the character of Yahweh as the war-God forms a prominent feature in the conception of God (Numbers 10:35; 21:14; Joshua 5:13; 10:11; Judges 5:4, 13, 20, 23, 31, etc.).
See GOD, NAMES OF,III , 8; LORD OF HOSTS; andHDB , V, 635 ff.
War; Warfare
War; Warfare - wor, wor'-far (milchamah, 'anshe m., "men of war," "soldiers"; polemos, polemein, strateuesthai, stratia):
1. Religious Significance
2. Preliminaries
3. Operations of War
4. Strategy
5. Important Requisites
6. Characteristics
7. Defeat and Victory
8. Spoils and Trophies
9. Treaties of Peace
10. War in the New Testament
LITERATURE
1. Religious Significance: From an early period of Hebrew history war had a religious significance. The Hebrews were the people of Yahweh, and they were reminded in their wars by the priest or priests who accompanied their armies that Yahweh was with them to fight their battles (Deuteronomy 20:1-4). It was customary to open a campaign, or to enter an engagement, with sacrificial rites (1 Samuel 7:8-10; 13:9). Hence, in the Prophets, to "prepare" war is to carry out the initiatory religious rites and therefore to "sanctify" war (Jeremiah 6:4; 22:7; Jeremiah 51:27-28; Micah 3:5; Joel 3:9; the Revised Version margin in each case); and Isaiah even speaks of Yahweh mustering His host and summoning to battle His "consecrated ones" (Isaiah 13:3), the warriors consecrated by the sacrifices offered before the war actually opened. The religious character attaching to war explains also the taboo which we find associated with it (Deuteronomy 20:7; 23:10; 2 Samuel 11:11).
2. Preliminaries: (1) Religious Preliminaries. It was in keeping with this that the oracle should be consulted before a campaign, or an engagement (Judges 20:18 ff; 1 Samuel 14:37; 23:2; 28:6; 30:8). The ark of God was believed to be possessed of special virtue in assuring victory, and, because it was identified in the eyes of the Israelites with the presence of Yahweh, it was taken into battle (1 Samuel 4:3). The people learned, however, by experience to put their trust in Yahweh Himself and not in any outward token of His presence. At the battle of Ebenezer the ark was taken into the fight with disastrous results to Israel (1 Samuel 4:4 ff). On the other hand at the battle of Michmash, the sacred ephod at Saul's request accompanied the Israelites into the field, and there was a great discomfiture of the Philistines (1 Samuel 14:18). In the later history prophets were appealed to for guidance before a campaign (1 Kings 22:5; 2 Kings 3:11), although fanatical members of the order sometimes gave fatal advice, as to Ahab at Ramoth-gilead, and probably to Josiah at Megiddo. Upon occasion the king addressed the host before engaging the enemy (2 Chronicles 20:20-22, where Jehoshaphat also had singers to go before the army into battle); and Judas Maccabeus did so, with prayer to God, on various occasions (1 Maccabees 3:58; 4:30; 5:32).
(2) Military Preliminaries. The call to arms was given by sound of trumpet throughout the land (Judges 3:27; 6:34; 1 Samuel 13:3; 2 Samuel 15:10; 20:1; compare Numbers 10:2). It was the part of the priests to sound an alarm with the trumpets (2 Chronicles 13:12-16; compare 1 Maccabees 4:40; 16:8), and the trumpets were to be blown in time of battle to keep God in remembrance of Israel that they might gain the victory. In the Prophets, we find the commencement of war described as the drawing of the sword from its sheath (Ezekiel 21:3 ff), and the uncovering of the shield (Isaiah 22:6). Graphic pictures of the mobilizing of forces, both for invasion and for defense, are found in Isaiah 22:6-8 and Nahum 3:2 and other Prophets. It was in the springtime that campaigns were usually opened, or resumed after a cessation of hostilities in winter (2 Samuel 11:1; 1 Kings 20:22, 26).
3. Operations of War: Of the actual disposition of troops in battle there are no full accounts till the Maccabean time, but an examination of the Biblical battlefields by modern travelers with knowledge of military history has yielded valuable results in showing the position of the combatants and the progress of the fight (an excellent example in Dr. William Miller's Least of All Lands, 85 ff, 116 ff, 150 ff, where the battles of Michmash, Elah and Gilboa are described with plans). With the Israelites the order of battle was simple. The force was drawn up, either in line, or in three divisions, a center and two wings. There was a rearguard (called in the King James Version "rereward," in the Revised Version (British and American) "rearward") to give protection on the march or to bring in stragglers (Judges 7:16; 1 Samuel 11:11; 2 Samuel 18:2; 1 Maccabees 5:33; compare also Numbers 10:25; Joshua 6:9; 1 Samuel 29:2; Isaiah 58:8). The signal for the charge and the retreat was given by sound of trumpet. There was a battle-cry to inspire courage and to impart confidence (Judges 7:20; Amos 1:14, etc.). The issue of the battle depended upon the personal courage and endurance of the combatants, fighting man against man, but there were occasions when the decision was left to single combat, as at the battle of Elah between the giant Goliath and the stripling David (1 Samuel 17:1-58). The combat at Gibeon between the men of Benjamin, twelve in number, followers of Ish-bosheth, and twelve of the servants of David, in which each slew his man and all fell together by mutual slaughter, was the prelude to "a very sore battle" in which Abner and the men of Israel were beaten before the servants of David (2 Samuel 2:16).
To the minor operations of war belong the raid, such as the Philistines made into the Valley of Rephaim (1 Chronicles 14:9), the foray, the object of which was plunder (2 Samuel 3:22), the foraging to secure supplies (2 Samuel 23:11 margin), and the movements of bands who captured defenseless inhabitants and sold them as slaves (2 Kings 5:2).
4. Strategy: Of strategical movements in war there was the ambush with liers-in-wait resorted to by Joshua at Ai (Joshua 8:3 ff); the feint, resorted to by the Israelites against the tribe of Benjamin (Judges 20:20 ff); the flank movement, adopted by David in the Valley of Rephaim to rout the Philistines (2 Samuel 5:22 f); and the surprise, inflicted successfully at the Waters of Merom upon the Canaanites under Jabin by Joshua (Joshua 11:1 f). Of all these the story of Judas Maccabeus, the great military leader of the Jewish nation, furnishes illustrations (1 Maccabees 4:5 and elsewhere).
5. Important Requisites: Among the requisites for the proper conduct of war the most important was the camp (machaneh). Of the exact configuration of the camp of the Israelites, it is not possible to speak with certainty. The camp of Israel in the wilderness seems to have been quadrilateral, although some have supposed it to be round or triangular (Numbers 2:1 ff). The camp in the wilderness was furnished with ensigns and standards--the family ensign ('oth), and a standard (deghel) for the group of tribes occupying each of the four sides. The standard or banner (nec) is used of the signal for the mustering of troops, but standard-bearer, which occurs only once in the Bible, is a doubtful reading (Isaiah 10:18, where the Revised Version margin, "sick man," is rather to be followed). In time of war the camp was surrounded by a barricade, or wagon-rampart (ma`gal), as at Elah (1 Samuel 17:20); and Saul lay within such a barricade in the wilderness of Ziph with his people round about him when David surprised him and carried off his spear (1 Samuel 26:5 ff). Tents were used for the shelter of troops, at any rate when occupied with a siege (2 Kings 7:7), although at the siege of Rabbah we read of booths for the purpose (2 Samuel 11:11). Pickets were set to watch the camp, and the watch was changed three times in the course of the night (Judges 7:19; 1 Maccabees 12:27). It was usual to leave a guard in charge of the camp when the force went into action or went off upon a raid (1 Samuel 25:13; 30:10). Careful prescriptions were laid down for the preservation of the purity of the camp, "for Yahweh thy God walketh in the midst of thy camp, .... therefore shall thy camp be holy" (Deuteronomy 23:9-14; compare Numbers 5:1-4). Garrisons (matstsabh) were placed in occupation of fortresses and strategical centers (2 Chronicles 17:2). No doubt the caves in the hillsides and rocky fastnesses of the land, as at Michmash, would serve for their reception (1 Samuel 13:1-23). The garrisons, however, which are expressly mentioned, were for the most part military posts for the occupation of a subject country--Philistines in Israelite territory (1 Samuel 13:2314:1; 14:11), and Israelites in Syrian and Edomite territory (2 Samuel 8:6, 14).
6. Characteristics: Among the characteristic notes of war, the tumult and the shouting were often noticed by the sacred historians (1 Samuel 4:6; 14:19; 2 Kings 7:6). In the figurative language of the prophets the terrors and horrors and devastation of war are set forth in lurid colors. "The snorting of his horses is heard from Dan," is Jeremiah's description of an invading army, "at the sound of the neighing of his strong ones the whole land trembleth" (Jeremiah 8:16). `The crack of the whip and the noise of the rumbling wheel and the galloping horse, and the jolting chariot and the rearing horsemen; and the flash of the sword and the glitter of the spear, and the multitude of slain; and a mass of dead bodies and no end to the carcasses' (Nahum 3:2-4: J. M. P. Smith's translation in ICC). Because of the devastation of territory and the slaughter of men which it entails, the sword is named with famine and "noisome beasts" (the American Standard Revised Version has "evil beasts") and "pestilence" as one of God's "four sore judgments" (Ezekiel 14:21, the King James Version). By a familiar figure "the sword" is often taken for all the operations of war, because it is characteristic of it to devour and to destroy (2 Samuel 2:26; Jeremiah 2:30).
7. Defeat and Victory: While the treatment of the vanquished in the wars of Israel never reached the pitch of savagery common in Assyrian warfare, there are not wanting examples of excessive severity, such as David's treatment of his Moabite prisoners (2 Samuel 8:2) and of the Ammonites captured at Rabbah (2 Samuel 12:31), and Menahem's barbarous treatment of Tiphsah (2 Kings 15:16; compare Numbers 31:17; Joshua 6:21). That it was common for the Philistines to mutilate and abuse their prisoners is shown by Saul's determination not to fall into their hands (1 Samuel 31:4). On that occasion the Philistines not only stripped the slain, but cut off Saul's head and fixed his body to the wall of Bethshan (1 Samuel 31:9-10). It was usual to carry off prisoners and sell them as slaves (2 Kings 5:2; 1 Maccabees 3:41). The conquerors were wont to deport the population of the subjugated country (2 Kings 17:6), to carry off treasure and impose tribute (2 Kings 16:8), and even to take the gods into captivity (Isaiah 46:1). On the other hand, the victors were hailed with acclamations and songs of rejoicing (1 Samuel 18:6), and victory was celebrated with public thanksgivings (Exodus 15:1; Judges 5:1; 1 Maccabees 4:24).
The spoils of war, spoken of as booty also--armor, clothing, jewelry, money, captives and animals--falling to the victors, were divided equally between those who had taken part in the battle and those who had been left behind in camp (Numbers 31:27; Joshua 22:8; 1 Samuel 30:24 f).
8. Spoils and Trophies: A proportion of the spoils was reserved for the Levites, and "a tribute unto the Lord" was also levied before distribution was made of the collected booty (Numbers 31:28, 30). To the Lord, in the Israelite interpretation of war, the spoils truly belong, and we see this exemplified at the capture of Jericho when the silver and the gold and the vessels of brass were put into the treasury of the house of the Lord (Joshua 6:24). Under the monarchy, part of the spoils fell to the king who might in turn dedicate it to the Lord or use it for the purposes of war (2 Kings 14:14; 1 Chronicles 18:7, 11). The armor of the conquered was sometimes dedicated as a trophy of victory and placed in the temple of the heathen or preserved near the ark of God (1 Samuel 21:9; 31:9).
9. Treaties of Peace: As the blast of the war-horn summoned to war, so it intimated the cessation of hostilities (2 Samuel 2:28); and as to draw the sword was the token of the entrance upon a campaign, so to return it to its sheath, or to put it up into the scabbard, was emblematic of the establishment of peace (Jeremiah 47:6). As ambassadors were sent to summon to war (Jeremiah 49:14), or to dissuade from war (2 Chronicles 35:21), so ambassadors were employed to negotiate peace (Isaiah 33:7). Treaties of peace were made on occasion between combatants, as between Ahab and Ben-hadad II after the defeat of the latter and his fortunate escape from the hands of Ahab with his life (1 Kings 20:30-31). By the appeal of Ben-hadad's representative to Ahab's clemency his life was spared, and in return therefor he granted to Ahab the right to have bazaars for trade in Damascus as his father had had in Samaria (1 Kings 20:34). Alliances, offensive and defensive, were common, as Ahab and Jehoshaphat against Syria (1 Kings 22:2 ff), Jehoram and Jehoshaphat and the king of Edom against Moab (2 Kings 3:7 ff), and the kings of the West, including Ahab and Hadadezer of Damascus, to resist Shalmaneser II of Assyria, who routed the allies at the battle of Qarqar in 854 BC. It is among the wonderful works of Yahweh that He makes war to cease to the end of the earth, that He breaks the bow, and cuts the spear in sunder, and "burneth the chariots in the fire" (Psalms 46:9). And prophetic pictures of the peace of the latter days include the breaking of "the bow and the sword and the battle out of the land" (Hosea 2:18), the beating of "swords into plowshares, and .... spears into pruning-hooks" (Isaiah 2:4; Micah 4:3).
10. War in the New Testament: Among the signs of the last days given by our Lord are "wars and rumors of wars" (Matthew 24:6; Mark 13:7; Luke 21:9, 24). Jesus accepts war as part of the present world-order, and draws from it an impressive illustration of the exacting conditions of Christian discipleship (Luke 14:31 ff). He foresees how Jerusalem is to be encompassed with armies and devoted to the bitterest extremities of war (Luke 19:41 ff). He conceives Himself come, not to send peace on earth, but a sword (Matthew 10:34); and declares that they who take the sword shall perish by the sword (Matthew 26:52). The apostles trace war to the selfishness and greed of men (James 4:1 ff); they see, speaking figuratively, in fleshly lusts enemies which war against the soul (1 Peter 2:11); they find in war apt figures of the spiritual struggle and divine protection and ultimate victory of the Christian (Romans 7:23; 8:37; 2 Corinthians 10:3, 5; 1 Timothy 1:18; Hebrews 13:13; 1 Peter 1:5), and of the triumphs of Christ Himself (2 Corinthians 2:14; Colossians 2:15; Ephesians 2:16-17). Paul made the acquaintance of the barracks, both at Jerusalem and at Caesarea (Acts 21:34, 37; 23:35); and at Rome his bonds became familiar to the members of the Praetorian guard who were from time to time detailed to have him in keeping (Philippians 1:13). It is under the figures of battle and war that John in the Apocalypse conceives the age-long conflict between righteousness and sin, Christ and Satan, and the final triumph of the Lamb, who is King of kings, and Lord of lords (Revelation 16:14-16; 17:14; 19:14). For other references see ARMY, 9; PRAETORIAN GUARD; TREATY.
LITERATURE.
Benzinger, article "Kriegswesen" in Herzog, Realencyklopadie fur protestantische Theologie und Kirche(3), XI; Nowack, Hebraische Archaeologie, 72; Browne, Hebrew Antiquities, 44-47.
T. Nicol
Ward
Ward - word: "Ward" and "guard" are two different spellings of the same word, and in consequence no clear line can be drawn between them. English Versions of the Bible, however, has used "guard" only in the sense of "a special body of soldiers" (Genesis 37:36, etc.), while "ward" is used, not only in this sense (Jeremiah 37:13; contrast Jeremiah 39:9), but also in a variety of others. So a "ward" may mean "any body of men on special duty," as 1 Chronicles 9:23; the King James Version 1 Chronicles 26:16; Nehemiah 12:24-25 (the Revised Version (British and American) "watch"), or the duty itself, as Isaiah 21:8; 1 Chronicles 12:29 the King James Version (the Revised Version (British and American) "allegiance"); 1 Chronicles 25:8; 26:12 (the Revised Version (British and American) "office," margin "ward"); Nehemiah 12:45; 13:30 (the Revised Version (British and American) "charge"). Or "ward" may mean "guarded place," always in the phrase "put in ward." the Revised Version (British and American) has kept this phrase throughout (Genesis 40:3, etc.), changing it only in Ezekiel 19:9, where "cage" better carries out the figure of the context.
The distinction of the older English between "watch" and "ward," as applying respectively to the night and to the day seems unknown in English Versions of the Bible. Compare Isaiah 21:8.
The affix "-ward," denoting direction and still used in such forms as "toward," "northward," etc., had a much wider range in Biblical English. So, "to God-ward" (Exodus 18:19; 2 Corinthians 3:4; 1 Thessalonians 1:8); "to thee-ward" (1 Samuel 19:4); "to us-ward" (Psalms 40:5; Ephesians 1:19; 2 Peter 3:9 the King James Version); "to you-ward" (2 Corinthians 1:12; 13:3; Ephesians 3:2; 2 Peter 3:9 the Revised Version (British and American)); and in Exodus 37:9, the King James Version "even to the mercy seatward" (the Revised Version (British and American) "toward the mercy-seat").
Burton Scott Easton
Wares
Wares - warz (maqqachah, mekher, mimkar, kin`ah, ma`aseh, `izzabhon, keli): (1) maqqachah, something received or purchased (Nehemiah 10:31); (2) mekher, "price" or "pay," value, merchandise (Nehemiah 13:16); (3) mimkar, a "selling," the thing sold (Nehemiah 13:20); (4) kin`ah, a "package," hence, wares (Jeremiah 10:17); (5) ma`aseh, "transaction," activity, property, possession, work, occupation, thing made, deed, business (Ezekiel 27:16, 18); (6) `izzabhon, "selling," trade, revenue, mart, letting go for a price (Ezekiel 27:33); (7) keli, a "prepared" something, as an implement, tool, weapon, utensil, armor, furniture, sack, vessel, hence, wares (Jonah 1:5). In most cases the real sense is merchandise (see MERCHANDISE). "That which did not a little amuse the Merchandizers (in Vanity-Fair) was, that these Pilgrims set very light by all their Wares; they cared not so much as to look upon them" (Bunyan, The Pilgrim's Progress).
William Edward Raffety
Warfare
Warfare - See WAR, WARFARE.
Warp
Warp - worp (shethi (Leviticus 13:48-59)): The long threads fixed into the loom to form the basis of the web, and into which the woof is wrought from the shuttle. The warp and the woof lying at right angles to one another have in their Hebrew form (shethi we`erebh) given to modern Jewish speech a secret expression to designate the cross.
See WEAVING.
Wars of Yahweh (the Lord) Book of The
Wars of Yahweh (the Lord) Book of The - worz.
See BIBLE,IV , 1, (1), (b).
Wash; Washing
Wash; Washing - wosh, wosh'-ing: The two usual Hebrew words for "wash" are rachats, and kabhac, the former being normally used of persons or of sacrificial animals (Genesis 18:4, etc., often translated "bathe"; Leviticus 15:5, etc.), and the latter of things (Genesis 49:11, etc.), the exceptions to this distinction being few (for rachats, 1 Kings 22:38 margin; for kabhac, Psalms 51:2, 7; Jeremiah 2:22; 4:14). Much less common are duach (2 Chronicles 4:6; Isaiah 4:4; Ezekiel 40:38) and shataph (1 Kings 22:38; Job 14:19; Ezekiel 16:9), translated "rinse" in Leviticus 6:28; Leviticus 15:11-12. In Nehemiah 4:23 the King James Version has "washing" and the Revised Version (British and American) "water" for mayim, but the text is hopelessly obscure (compare the Revised Version margin). In the Apocrypha and New Testament the range of terms is wider. Most common is nipto (Matthew 6:17, etc.), with aponipto in Matthew 27:24. Of the other terms, louo (Susanna verses 15,17; John 13:10, etc.), with apolouo (Acts 22:16; 1 Corinthians 6:11) and the noun loutron (Sirach 344:25b; Ephesians 5:26; Titus 3:5), usually has a sacral significance. On baptizo (Sirach 344:25a; Mark 7:4; Luke 11:38), with the noun baptismos (Mark 7:4 (text?); Hebrews 9:10), see BAPTISM. In Luke 5:2; Revelation 7:14; 22:14 the Revised Version (British and American) occurs pluno, while Judith 10:3 has perikluzo. Virtually, as far as meaning is concerned, all these words are interchangeable. Of the figurative uses of washing, the most common and obvious is that of cleansing from sin (Psalms 51:2; Isaiah 1:16, etc.), but, with an entirely different figure, "to wash in" may signify "to enjoy in plenty" (Genesis 49:11; Job 29:6; the meaning in Song of Solomon 5:12 is uncertain). Washing of the hands, in token of innocence, is found in Deuteronomy 21:6; Matthew 27:24.
The "washing balls" of Susanna verse 17 (smegma, a very rare word) were of soap.
See SOAP.
Burton Scott Easton
Washing of Feet
Washing of Feet - The Old Testament references (Genesis 18:4; 19:2: Genesis 24:1-67:Genesis 32:1-32; 43:24; Judges 19:21; 1 Samuel 25:41; 2 Samuel 11:8; Song of Solomon 5:3; Psalms 58:10) show that the washing of the feet was the first act on entering the tent or house after a journey. The Orientals wore only sandals, and this washing was refreshing as well as cleanly. In the case of ordinary people, the host furnished the water, and the guests washed their own feet, but in the richer houses, the washing was done by a slave. It was looked upon as the lowliest of all services (1 Samuel 25:41). Jesus pointedly contrasts Simon's neglect of even giving Him water for His feet with the woman's washing His feet with tears and wiping them with her hair (Luke 7:44). On the last evening of His life, Jesus washed the disciples' feet (John 13:1-16). Their pride, heightened by the anticipations of place in the Messianic kingdom whose crisis they immediately expected, prevented their doing this service for each other. Possibly the same pride had expressed itself on this same evening in a controversy about places at table. Jesus, conscious of His divine dignity and against Peter's protest, performed for them this lowliest service. His act of humility actually cleansed their hearts of selfish ambition, killed their pride, and taught them the lesson of love. See also The Expository Times,XI , 536 f.
Was it meant to be a perpetual ordinance? John 13:15, with its "as" and the present tense of the verb "do," gives it a priori probability. It has been so understood by the Mennonites and the Dunkards. Bernard of Clairvaux advocated making it a sacrament. The Pope, the Czar, and the Patriarch of Constantinople wash the feet of 12 poor men on Maundy Thursday; so did the English kings till James II, and it is still practiced in the royal palaces of Madrid, Munich and Vienna. But the objections to such an interpretation are overwhelming: (1) It is never referred to in the Synoptic Gospels, the Acts or the Epistle; 1 Timothy 5:10 refers only to lowly service to the saints. (2) It was first in the 4th century (compare Ambrose and Augustine) that it became the custom to wash the feet of the baptized on Maundy Thursday. (3) Ritualizing such an act of love absolutely destroys its meaning. (4) No large body of Christians has ever received it as a sacrament or an ordinance.
F. L. Anderson
According to the Belief and Practice of the Church of the Brethren
1. Practice: Feet-washing is always practiced in connection with the Agape and the Lord's Supper. This entire service is usually called "Love Feast." These Love Feasts are always held in the evening (in conformity to the time of Jesus' Last Supper). Preparatory services on self-examination are held either at a previous service or at the opening of the Love Feast. Each church or congregation is supposed to hold one or two Love Feasts annually. No specified time of the year is set for these services. Before the supper is eaten all the communicants wash one another's feet; the brethren by themselves, and likewise the sisters by themselves.
(1) The Mode. In earlier years the "Double Mode" was practiced, where one person would wash the feet of several persons and another would follow after and wipe them. At present the "Single Mode" is almost universal, wherein each communicant washes and wipes the feet of another. Hence, each one washes and wipes the feet of other, and in turn has this same service performed to himself.
(2) The Salutation. Feet-washing is also accompanied with the "Holy Kiss." As soon as one has finished washing and wiping the feet of another, he takes him by the hand and greets him with the "holy kiss," usually with an appropriate benediction as: "God bless you," or "May the Lord bless us."
2. Scriptural Basis for Feet-Washing: There are three texts in the New Testament referring to feet-washing (Luke 7:36-50; John 13:1-17; 1 Timothy 5:10).
(1) Jesus Washing the Disciples' Feet (John 13:1-17).
"At supper time" (deipnou genomenou) Jesus arose, laid aside His garments (himatia = "outer garments"), girded Himself with a towel, poured water into a basin, and began to wash and wipe the feet of the disciples.
(2) Peter's Objection. "Simon Peter .... saith unto him, Lord, dost thou wash my feet (su mou nipteis tous podas)? Jesus answered .... What I do thou knowest not now; but thou shalt understand hereafter. Peter saith unto him, Thou shalt never wash my feet." Whereupon Jesus said: "If I wash thee not, thou hast no part with me."
(3) Jesus Explains. Peter now goes to the other extreme and desires complete washing. Jesus answers "He that is bathed (leloumenos, from louo, "to bathe entire body") needeth not save to wash (niptein--"to wash a part of the body") his feet." Jesus was not instituting a new symbol to take the place of baptism, to cleanse the entire person, but clearly distinguishes between the bathing (louo) of the entire body and the partial cleansing needed after the bath (baptism or immersion).
(4) The Command. "If I then, the Lord and the Teacher, have washed your feet, ye also ought to wash one another's feet" (John 13:14, kai humeis opheilete allelon niptein tous podas), "I have given you an example (sign, symbol, hupodeigma), that ye also should do as I have done to you" (John 13:15). "If ye know these things, happy (or "blessed" the Revised Version (British and American), makarioi) are ye if ye do them" (ean poiete auta). No language is clearer, and no command of Jesus is stronger than this. Furthermore, no symbol is accompanied with a greater promise. Note also, "If I wash thee not, thou hast no part with me."
3. The Meaning of the Symbol: (1) Negatively. (a) It cannot be explained as necessity or custom, i.e. that the dust must be washed from the feet of the disciples before proceeding with the supper. It was so cold that Peter had to warm himself, and this is sufficient evidence that they wore shoes instead of sandals at this time. Furthermore, Peter did not understand the action of Jesus, hence, it could not have been customary. Most of all, Jesus was not scrupulous about keeping the customs or practices of the Jews; compare Jesus' breaking of the Jewish Sabbath (Mark 2:23-26); the Jewish fasts (Mark 2:18-22); the Jewish cleansings (Mark 7:1-20). (b) It was not customary for the host to wash the feet of the guests. Peter objected, and Jesus told him distinctly that he could not understand at the time (arti), but would afterward (meta tauta). The symbol had a deeper meaning.
(2) Positively. (a) Feet-washing symbolizes humility and service. The apostles had been quarreling as to who would be greatest in the kingdom which they thought Jesus was about to set up (Luke 22:24-30). Most authorities agree that this quarrel took place before the supper. Peter's question. "Dost thou wash my feet?" shows clearly that his objection lay principally in this, that Jesus, the Lord and Master, should perform such humble service. But Jesus was trying all the time to teach His disciples that true greatness in His kingdom is humility and service. "I am in the midst of you as he that serveth" (Luke 22:27; compare Matthew 5:5; Matthew 23:11-12). Humility and service are fundamental virtues in the Christian life. To wash the feet of another symbolizes these virtues in the same way that the Eucharist symbolizes other Christian virtues. (b) Cleansing: Jesus clearly distinguished between the first cleansing which cleanses the whole person, and the washing of a part of the body. Baptism is the new birth, which means complete cleansing. But after baptism we still commit sins, and need the partial cleansing as symbolized by feetwashing. Compare Bernard of Clairvaux: "Feet-washing is cleansing of those daily offenses which seem inevitable for those who walk in the dust of the world" (sed pedes (abluti sunt) qui aunt animae affectiones, dum in hac pulvere gradimur, ex toto mundi ease non possunt).
4. Practised by the Church of the Brethren: Feet-washing is practiced by the Church of the Brethren for the following reasons: (1) Jesus washed His disciples' feet and said, "I have given you an example, that ye also should do as I have done to you" (John 13:15). (2) Jesus said, "Ye also ought ("are bound," opheilete) to wash one another's feet" (John 13:14). (3) "If I wash thee not, thou hast no part with me" (John 13:8), (4) "If ye know these things, blessed are ye if ye do them" (John 13:17). (5) Feet-washing symbolizes humility and service, which are fundamental virtues. (6) Feet-washing symbolizes cleansing from the sins committed after baptism.
LITERATURE.
For the Church of the Brethren: C. F. Yoder, God's Means of Grace; R. H. Miller, The Doctrine of the Brethren Defended; tracts issued by the Brethren Publishing House, Elgin, III. For history of feet-washing, see ERE, V; New Sch-Herz Eric of Religious Knowledge,IV , 4; Smith and Cheetham, Dictionary of Christian Antiquities, articles "Baptism," "Maundy Thursday."
Daniel Webster Kurtz
Washpot
Washpot - wosh'-pot (sir rachats, "vessel for washing"): Only Psalms 60:8 = Psalms 108:9, "Moab is my washpot"; i.e. "Moab is my chattel, to betreated contemptuously," as the vessel in which the conqueror's feet are washed.
Wasp
Wasp - wosp.
See HORNET.
Watch
Watch - woch ('ashmurah, 'ashmoreth; phulake): A division of the night. The night was originally divided into three watches (Judges 7:19), but later into four, as we find in the New Testament (Matthew 14:25; Mark 6:48). We do not know the limits of the watches in the first division, but the middle watch probably began two hours before midnight and ended two hours after. The fourfold division was according to the Roman system, each of which was a fourth part of the night.
See TIME.
"Watch" is also the guard placed on watch (mishmar, Nehemiah 4:9; koustodia, from Latin custodia, Matthew 27:65-66; 28:11). It sometimes refers to the act of watching, as in 2 Kings 11:6-7 (mishmereth); Luke 2:8 (phulake).
"Watch" is also used figuratively, as in Psalms 141:3 for restraint: "Set a watch, O Yahweh, before my mouth" (shomrah).
See WARD.
H. Porter
Watcher
Watcher - woch'-er (Aramaic 'ir, "wakeful one"): In Nebuchadnezzar's dream (Daniel 4:13, 17, 23 (Matthew 1:10, 14, 20)) a messenger who with "a holy one" descended from heaven, they having joint authority to issue decrees. In the apocryphal literature the doctrine of the "watchers" is much elaborated. In Jubilees they are regarded as angels sent to instruct mankind in righteousness. In Enoch they sometimes appear as archangels and at other times as fallen angels. In the latter condition only we find them in the Book of Adam and Eve. The place of descent was according to Enoch 6:6 the summit of Mt. Hermon.
W. M. Christie
Watchman
Watchman - woch'-man (tsopheh, shomer, metsappeh, notser): Used to designate a sentinel on the city walls (2 Samuel 18:25; 2 Kings 9:18; Psalms 127:1; Isaiah 62:6) or on the hilltops (Jeremiah 31:6). Song of Solomon 3:3; 5:7 introduces another class, "the watchmen that go about the city," and thus, it would seem, points to some system of municipal police. The distinction in meaning between the various words is clear, tsopheh having the idea of "outlooker" and notser that of "careful watcher" (being applied even to besiegers from outside: Jeremiah 4:16, "watchers"), while shomer also embraces the idea of "defending" or "guarding." In Isaiah 21:6 metsappeh is to be taken generally in the sense of "watch." In Sirach 37:14 skopos, means simply "looker."
W. M. Christie
Watch-tour
Watch-tour - woch'-tou-er (mitspeh (Isaiah 21:8; 2 Chronicles 20:24); bachan (Isaiah 32:14 the Revised Version (British and American))): In Isaiah 2:16 the words sekhiyoth ha-chemdah have puzzled the translators. the King James Version gives "pleasant pictures," the Revised Version (British and American) "pleasant imagery," while the Revised Version margin has "pleasant watchtowers." Guthe in Kautzsch's Bible translates Schaustucke, which practically agrees with the Revised Version (British and American).
See MIZPEH ; TOWER.
Water
Water - wo'-ter (mayim; hudor):
(1) The Greek philosophers believed water to be the original substance and that all things were made from it. The Koran states, "From water we have made all things." In the story of the creation (Genesis 1:2) water plays an elemental part.
(2) Because of the scarcity of water in Palestine it is especially appreciated by the people there. They love to go and sit by a stream of running water. Men long for a taste of the water of their native village (1 Chronicles 11:17). A town or village is known throughout the country for the quality of its water, which is described by many adjectives, such as "light," "heavy," etc.
(3) The rainfall is the only source of supply of water for Palestine. The moisture is carried up from the sea in clouds and falls on the hills as rain or snow. This supplies the springs and fountains. The rivers are mostly small and have little or no water in summer. For the most part springs supply the villages, but in case this is not sufficient, cisterns are used. Most of the rain falls on the western slopes of the mountains, and most of the springs are found there. The limestone in many places does not hold the water, so wells are not very common, though there are many references to them in the Bible.
(4) Cisterns are usually on the surface of the ground and vary greatly in size. Jerusalem has always had to depend for the most part on water stored in this way, and carried to the city in aqueducts. A large number of cisterns have been found and partially explored under the temple-area itself. The water stored in the cisterns is surface water, and is a great menace to the health of the people. During the long, dry summer the water gets less and less, and becomes so stagnant and filthy that it is not fit to drink. In a few instances the cisterns or pools are sufficiently large to supply water for limited irrigation.
See CISTERN.
(5) During the summer when there is no rain, vegetation is greatly helped by the heavy dews. A considerable amount of irrigation is carried on in the country where there is sufficient water in the fountains and springs for the purpose. There was doubtless much more of it in the Roman period. Most of the fruit trees require water during the summer.
(6) Many particular wells or pools are mentioned in the Bible, as: Beersheba (Genesis 21:19), Isaac's well (Genesis 24:11), Jacob's well (John 4:6), Pool of Siloam (John 9:7), "waters of Nephtoah" (Joshua 15:9).
(7) Washing with water held a considerable place in the Jewish temple-ceremony (Leviticus 11:32; 16:4; 17:15; 22:6; Numbers 19:7; Exodus 30:18; 40:7). Sacrifices were washed (Exodus 29:4; Leviticus 1:9; 6:28; 14:5).
(8) The lack of water caused great suffering (Exodus 15:22; Deuteronomy 8:15; 2 Kings 3:9; Psalms 63:1; Proverbs 9:17; Ezekiel 4:11; Lamentations 5:4).
See also FOUNTAIN; PIT; POOL; SPRING; WELL.
Alfred H. Joy
Water of Bitterness (or of Jealousy)
Water of Bitterness (or of Jealousy) - See ADULTERY, (2).
Water of Separation (or of Uncleanness)
Water of Separation (or of Uncleanness) - See DEFILEMENT ; SEPARATION; UNCLEANNESS.
Watercourse
Watercourse - wo'-ter-kors: (1) 'aphiq (Ezekiel 6:3; 31:12; 32:6; 34:13; 35:8; 4, 6), the King James Version "river," elsewhere "stream," "channel," or "brook." (2) pelegh (Proverbs 21:1). "The king's heart is in the hand of Yahweh as the watercourses," the King James Version "rivers," elsewhere "streams" or "rivers." (3) yabhal, yibheley mayim, "watercourses" (English Versions of the Bible) (Isaiah 44:4); in Isaiah 30:25, English Versions of the Bible has "streams of water"; compare yubhal, "rivers" (Jeremiah 17:8); yubhal, "Jubal" (Genesis 4:21); 'ubhal, "the river Ulai" (Daniel 8:2-3, 6). (4) te`alah, "channel," the King James Version "watercourse" (Job 38:25); elsewhere "conduit," "the conduit of the upper pool" (2 Kings 18:17; Isaiah 7:3; 36:2). (5) tsinnor, "watercourse," the King James Version "gutter" (2 Samuel 5:8).
See BROOK; RIVER; STREAM; WATERFALL.
Alfred Ely Day
Waterfall
Waterfall - wo'-ter-fol (tsinnor; only in the American Standard Revised Version (Psalms 42:7)):
"Deep calleth unto deep at the
noise of thy waterfalls;
All thy waves and thy billows
are gone over me."
The King James Version and the English Revised Version have "waterspouts," the English Revised Version margin "cataracts." The etymology of the word is uncertain. It occurs also in 2 Samuel 5:8, translated "watercourse," the King James Version "gutter." Compare (tsanteroth), "spouts" (Zechariah 4:12).
Waterpot
Waterpot - wo'-ter-pot (hudria; compare hudor, "water"): An earthen vessel, or jar, for carrying or holding water (in the Septuagint for kadh, "jar," or "pitcher"). It was usually carried by women upon the head, or upon the shoulder (John 4:28). Pots of larger size, holding eighteen or twenty gallons apiece, were used by the Jews for purposes of ceremonial purification (John 2:6).
Waters
Waters - wo'-terz (mayim, plural of may, "water"; in the New Testament hudor, "water"; kindunois potamon (2 Corinthians 11:26), the King James Version "perils of waters," is in the Revised Version (British and American) "perils of rivers"): In the New Testament there is frequent reference to the water of baptism. Pilate washes his hands with water to signify his guiltlessness. Jesus tells the Samaritan woman of the living water. The Lamb shall guide the redeemed unto fountains of waters of life.
The uses of mayim are well classified in BDB, especially the figurative references, as follows: a symbol of distress, "when thou passest through the waters" (Isaiah 43:2); of force, "like the breach of waters" (2 Samuel 5:20); of that which is overwhelming, "a tempest of mighty waters overflowing" (Isaiah 28:2); of fear, "The hearts of the people .... became as water" (Joshua 7:5); of transitoriness, "Thou shalt remember it as waters that are passed away" (Job 11:16); of refreshment, "as streams of water in a dry place" (Isaiah 32:2); of peace, "He leadeth me beside still waters" (Psalms 23:2); of legitimate pleasures, "waters out of thine own cistern" (Proverbs 5:15); of illegitimate pleasures, "Stolen waters are sweet" (Proverbs 9:17); of that which is poured out abundantly, blood (Psalms 79:3), wrath (Hosea 5:10), justice (Amos 5:24), groanings (Job 3:24).
Alfred Ely Day
Waters of Merom
Waters of Merom - See MEROM, WATERS OF.
Waters of Strife
Waters of Strife - strif.
See MERIBAH.
Waterspout
Waterspout - wo'-ter-spout: (1) (tsinnor) (Psalms 42:7), the American Standard Revised Version "waterfalls," the King James Version and the English Revised Version "waterspouts," the English Revised Version margin "cataracts." (2) (tannin) (Psalms 148:7), the American Standard Revised Version "sea-monsters," the King James Version and the English Revised Version "dragons," the English Revised Version margin, "sea-monsters" or "water-spouts."
"Praise Yahweh from the earth, Ye sea-monsters, and all deeps."
See DRAGON; SEA-MONSTER; WATERFALL.
Alfred Ely Day
Wave Offering
Wave Offering - wav of'-er-ing.
See SACRIFICE.
Waw
Waw - waw "w": The sixth letter of the Hebrew alphabet; transliterated in this Encyclopedia "w" (or "v"). It came also to be used for the number 6. For name, etc., see ALPHABET.
Wax
Wax - waks:
(1) Noun (donagh): Used only in a simile of melting (Psalms 22:14; 68:2; 97:5; Micah 1:4).
See WRITING.
(2) A now archaic verb, meaning "to grow," used freely in English Versions of the Bible as a translation of various terms in Greek and Hebrew. The past participle in the King James Version and the English Revised Version is "waxen," except in Genesis 18:12. There (and throughout in the American Standard Revised Version) the form is "waxed."
Way
Way - wa ('orach, orcha', 'erets, bo', derekh, halikhah, ma`galah, nathibh; hodos, parodos, poreia, tropos; "highway," mecillah, meclul; diexodoi ton hodon): The list just cited contains only a portion of the words translated "way" or "highway" in the King James Version. Most of them have the primary meaning of "road," "customary path," "course of travel" (Genesis 3:24; Exodus 23:20; Numbers 20:17, etc.). By a very easy and natural figure "way" is applied to the course of human conduct, the manner of life which one lives (Exodus 18:20; 32:8; Numbers 22:32; 1 Samuel 8:3; 1 Kings 13:33, etc.; Acts 14:16; 1 Corinthians 4:17; James 5:20). "The way of an eagle .... of a serpent .... of a ship .... and of a man" (Proverbs 30:19) agree in that they leave no trace behind them (compare Wisdom of Solomon 5:10, 11). In some cases the language may be such as to leave it indeterminate whether the way or course of conduct is good or bad (Deuteronomy 28:29; 1 Samuel 18:14; 2 Chronicles 27:7; Job 13:15; Proverbs 3:6; 6:6; James 1:8), though in most cases the Bible writers attach to every act an ethical evaluation. Sometimes this way of conduct is of purely human choice, without reference to either God or good (Judges 2:19; Job 22:15; 34:21; Psalms 119:9; Proverbs 12:15; 16:2). Such a course is evil (2 Chronicles 7:14; Psalms 1:6; 101, 104, 128; Proverbs 1:19, etc.) and will obtain such punishment as its lack of merit warrants (1 Kings 8:32, 39; 2 Chronicles 6:23; Job 30:12; 34:11; Jeremiah 17:10; Ezekiel 7:3, 9; Hosea 12:2). At the opposite extreme from this is the good way (Psalms 1:6; Proverbs 8:20; 12:28; 15:10; Isaiah 26:7), which is that course of conduct enjoined by God and exemplified in His perfect conduct (Genesis 6:12; 18:19; Deuteronomy 8:6; 26:17; 1 Kings 2:3; Job 23:11; Psalms 51:13, etc.). These two ways briefly but graphically described by the Lord (Matthew 7:13-14; compare Luke 13:24) became the subject of extended catechetical instruction in the early church. See the Epistle of Barnabas, xviii, and the Didache i.1. Frequently the way in this metaphorical sense is characterized by that quality which is its outstanding feature, e.g. mention is made of the way of life (Proverbs 15:24; Jeremiah 21:8; Acts 2:28); of truth (Psalms 119:30; 2 Peter 2:2); of peace (Isaiah 59:8; Luke 1:79; Romans 3:17); of justice (Proverbs 17:23; Daniel 4:37); of righteousness (Matthew 21:32; 2 Peter 2:21); of salvation (Acts 16:17); of lying (Psalms 119:29), and of death (Jeremiah 21:8). Frequently God's purpose or His customary action is described as His way (Psalms 103:7; Isaiah 26:8; Matthew 22:16; Acts 13:10). Since all of God's plans and purposes tend toward man's salvation, His provisions to this end are frequently spoken of as His Way, and inasmuch as all of the divine plans center in Christ He is preeminently the Way (John 14:6). Out of this fact grew the title, "The Way," one of the earliest names applied to Christianity (Acts 9:2; Acts 18:25-26; 9, 23; 22:4; 24:22).
The word highway is used to denote a prominent road, such a one for example as was in ancient times maintained for royal travel and by royal authority. It is always used in the literal sense except in Proverbs 15:19; 16:17, where it is a course of conduct.
See also PATH,PATHWAY .
W. C. Morro
Way, Covered
Way, Covered - See COVERED WAY.
Way, Little
Way, Little - (kibhrah, "length," "a measure"): A technical measure of distance in the Hebrew; but it must be considered undefined (Genesis 35:16; 48:7 the King James Version, the English Revised Version "some way," the American Standard Revised Version "some distance"; 2 Kings 5:19, the English Revised Version "some way," the American Revised Version margin "some distance"). The Hebrew term kibhrah is also found in Phoenician inscriptions as a measure of distance.
Wayfaring Man
Wayfaring Man - wa'-far-ing, The translation in Judges 19:17; 2 Samuel 12:4; Jeremiah 9:2; 14:8 of ('oreach), the participle of 'arach, "to journey." In Isaiah 33:8 of `obher 'orach, "one passing on a path," and in Isaiah 35:8 of holekh derekh, "one walking on a road." "Traveler" is the meaning in all cases.
Waymark
Waymark - wa'-mark (tsyun): In Jeremiah 31:21, "Set thee up waymarks," explained by the parallel, "Make thee guide-posts" (the King James Version "Make thee high heaps"). A sign or guiding mark on the highway.
Wealth, Wealthy
Wealth, Wealthy - welth, wel'-thi (hon, chayil, nekhacim; euporia, "to possess riches," "to be in a position of ease" (Jeremiah 49:31)): The possession of wealth is not regarded as sinful, but, on the contrary, was looked upon as a sign of the blessing of God (Ecclesiastes 5:19; 6:2). The doctrine of "blessed are the poor, and cursed are the rich" finds no countenance in the Scriptures, for Luke 6:20, 24 refers to concrete conditions (disciples and persecutors; note the "ye"). God is the maker of rich and poor alike (Proverbs 22:2). But while it is not sinful to be rich it is very dangerous, and certainly perilous to one's salvation (Matthew 19:23). Of this fact the rich young ruler is a striking example (Luke 18:22-23). It is because of the danger of losing the soul through the possession of wealth that so many exhortations are found in the Scriptures aimed especially at those who have an abundance of this world's goods (1 Timothy 6:17; James 1:10-11; 5:1, etc.). Certain parables are especially worthy of note in this same connection, e.g. the Rich Fool (Luke 12:16-21), the Rich Man and Lazarus--if such can be called a parable--(Luke 16:19-31). That it is not impossible for men of wealth to be saved, however, is apparent from the narratives, in the Gospels, of such rich men as Nicodemus, and Joseph of Arimathea (John 19:38-39; Matthew 27:57-60), and Zaccheus (Luke 19:1-10). It may fairly be inferred from the Gospel records that James and John, who were disciples of our Lord, were men of considerable means (Mark 1:19-20; John 19:27).
Wealth may be the result of industry (Proverbs 10:4), or the result of the special blessing of God (2 Chronicles 1:11-12). We are warned to be careful lest at any time we should say "My power and the might of my hand hath gotten me this wealth. But thou shalt remember Yahweh thy God, for it is he that giveth thee power to get wealth" (Deuteronomy 8:17-18).
Those possessing wealth are liable to certain kinds of sins against which they are frequently warned, e.g., highmindedness (1 Timothy 6:17); oppression of the poor (James 2:6); selfishness (Luke 12:1-59 and Luke 16:1-31); dishonesty (Luke 19:1-10); self-conceit (Proverbs 28:11); self-trust (Proverbs 18:11).
It is of interest to note that in the five places in the New Testament in which the word "lucre"--as applying to wealth--is used, it is prefaced by the word "filthy" (1 Timothy 3:3 (the King James Version),8; Titus 1:7, 11; 1 Peter 5:2), and that in four of these five places it refers to the income of ministers of the gospel, as though they were particularly susceptible of being led away by the influences and power of money, and so needed special warning.
The Scriptures are not without instruction as to how we may use our wealth wisely and as well-pleasing to God. The parable of the Unjust Steward (Luke 16:1-31) exhorts us to "make .... friends by means of the mammon of unrighteousness," by which is meant that we should use the wealth which God has committed to us as stewards in order that we may win friends (souls) with it for Him and His kingdom, just as the unfaithful steward used the goods with which his master had entrusted him to make friends for himself. The parable of Dives and Lazarus gives us the sad picture of a selfish rich man who had abused his trust, who had failed to make friends with his money, and who, in the other world, would have given anything just for such a friend (Luke 16:19-31).
See also RICHES.
William Evans
Wean
Wean - wen: "To wean" in English Versions of the Bible is always the translation of (gamal), but gamal has a much wider force than merely "to wean," signifying "to deal fully with," as in Psalms 13:6, etc. Hence, as applied to a child, gamal covers the whole period of nursing and care until the weaning is complete (1 Kings 11:20). This period in ancient Israel extended to about 3 years, and when it was finished the child was mature enough to be entrusted to strangers (1 Samuel 1:24). And, as the completion of the period marked the end of the most critical stage of the child's life, it was celebrated with a feast (Genesis 21:8), a custom still observed in the Orient. The weaned child, no longer fretting for the breast and satisfied with its mother's affection, is used in Psalms 131:2 as a figure for Israel's contentment with God's care, despite the smallness of earthly possessions. In Isaiah 28:9 there is an ironical question, `Is God to teach you knowledge as if you were children? You should have learned His will long ago!'
Burton Scott Easton
Weapons
Weapons - wep'-unz.
See ARMOR.
Weasel
Weasel - we'-z'-l (choledh; compare Arabic khuld, "mole-rat"): (1) Choledh is found only in Leviticus 11:29, where it stands first in the list of eight unclean "creeping things that creep upon the earth." the King James Version and the Revised Version (British and American) agree in rendering choledh by "weasel," and the Septuagint has gale, "weasel" or "marten." According to Gesenius, the Vulgate, Targum, and Talmud support the same rendering. In spite of this array of authorities, it is worth while to consider the claims of the mole-rat, Spalax typhlus, Arabic khuld. This is a very common rodent, similar in appearance and habits to the mole, which does not exist in Palestine. The fact that it burrows may be considered against it, in view of the words, "that creepeth upon the earth." The term "creeping thing" is, however, very applicable to it, and the objection seems like a quibble, especially in view of the fact that there is no category of subterranean animals. See MOLE. (2) The weasel, Mustela vulgaris, has a wide range in Asia, Europe, and North America. It is from 8 to 10 inches long, including the short tail. It is brown above and white below. In the northern part of its range, its whole fur, except the tail, is white in winter. It is active and fearless, and preys upon all sorts of small mammals, birds and insects.
See LIZARD.
Alfred Ely Day
Weather
Weather - weth'-er (zahabh (Job 37:22), yom (Proverbs 25:20), translated "day"; eudia, "clear sky," cheimon, "tempest"): In the East it is not customary to talk of the weather as in the West. There seems to be no word in the Hebrew corresponding to "weather." In Job 37:22 the King James Version translates "Fair weather comes out of the north," but the Revised Version (British and American) translates more literally, "Out of the north cometh golden splendor." "As one that taketh off a garment in cold weather (or literally, "on a cold day"), .... so is he that singeth songs to a heavy heart" (Proverbs 25:20).
Jesus rebukes the Pharisees for their lack of spiritual foresight when they took such interest in natural foresight. He said, "When it is evening, ye say, It will be fair weather: for the heaven is red. And in the morning, It will be foul weather to-day: for the heaven is red and lowering" (Matthew 16:2-3). The general conditions of the weather in the different seasons are less variable in Palestine than in colder countries, but the precise weather for a given day is very hard to predict on account of the proximity of the mountains, the desert and the sea.
Alfred H. Joy
Weaving
Weaving - we'-ving: Although weaving was one of the most important and best developed of the crafts of Bible times, yet we have but few Biblical references to enlighten us as to the processes used in those early days. A knowledge of the technique of weaving is necessary, however, if we are to understand some of the Biblical incidents. The principle of weaving in all ages is illustrated by the process of darning. The hole to be darned is laid over with parallel threads which correspond to the "warp" (shethi) of a woven fabric. Then, by means of a darning needle which takes the place of the shuttle in the loom, other threads are interlaced back and forth at right angles to the first set of strands. This second set corresponds to the woof (`erebh) or weft of woven cloth. The result is a web of threads across the hole. If the warp threads, instead of being attached to the edges of a fabric, are fastened to two beams which can be stretched either on a frame or on the ground, and the woof is interlaced exactly as in darning, the result will be a web of cloth. The process is then called weaving ('aragh), and the apparatus a loom. The most up-to-date loom of our modern mills differs from the above only in the devices for accelerating the process. The first of these improvements dates back some 5,000 years to the early Egyptians, who discovered what is technically known as shedding, i.e. dividing the warp into two sets of threads, every other thread being lifted so that the woof can run between, as is shown in the diagram of the Arabic loom.of considerable means (Mark 1:19-20; John 19:27).
The looms are still commonly used among the Bedouins. Supppose only eight threads are used for an illustration. In reality the eight strands are made by passing one continuous thread back and forth between the two poles which are held apart by stakes driven into the ground. The even strands run through loops of string attached to a rod, and from there under a beam to the pole. By placing the ends upon stones, or by suspending it on loops, the even threads are raised above the odd threads, thus forming a shed through which the weft can be passed. The separating of odds and evens is assisted by a flat board of wedge-shaped cross-section, which is turned at right angles to the odd threads. After the shuttle has been passed across, this same stick is used to beat up the weft.
The threads are removed from the stones or loops, and allowed to lie loosely on the warp; it is pulled forward toward the weaver and raised on the stones in the position previously occupied by it. The flat spreader is passed through the new shed in which the odd threads are now above and the even threads below. The weft is run through and is beaten into place with the thin edge of it. The shuttle commonly used is a straight tree branch on which the thread is loosely wound "kite-string" fashion.
The loom used by Delilah was no doubt like the one described above (Judges 16:13-14). It would have been an easy matter for her to run in Samson's locks as strands of the weft while he lay sleeping on the ground near the loom adjacent to rod under the beam. The passage might be transposed thus: "And he said unto her, If thou weavest the seven locks of my head into the web. And she passed in his locks and beat them up with the batten (yathedh), and said unto him, The Philistines are upon thee, Samson. And he awakened out of his sleep and as he jumped up he pulled away the pins of the loom."
The counterpart of the Bedouin loom is shown on the ancient tombs at Beni Chasan (see EB , 5279, or Wilkinson, I, 317). As Dr. Kennedy points out, the artist of that ancient picture has unwittingly reversed the order of the beams. The shedding beam, of the two, should be nearer the weaver. At what period the crude shedding device described above was replaced by a double set of loops worked by pedals is unknown. Some writers believe that the Jews were acquainted with it. The "flying shuttle" of the modern loom is probably a comparatively recent invention.
The products of the Bedouin looms are coarse in texture. Such passages as Exodus 35:35; Isaiah 19:9, and examples of ancient weaving, lead us to believe that in Bible times contemporaneous with the primitive loom were more highly developed machines, just as in the cities of Egypt and Palestine today, alongside of the crude Bedouin loom, are found the more intricate hand looms on which are produced the most delicate fabrics possible to the weaver's article. Examples of cloth comparing favorably with our best grades of muslin have been found among the Egyptian mummy wrappings.
Two other forms of looms have been used for weaving, in both of which the warp is upright. In one type the strands of the warp, singly or in bundles, are suspended from a beam and held taut by numerous small weights made of stones or pottery. Dr. Bliss found at Tel el-Chesy collections of weights, sometimes 60 or more together, individual examples of which showed marks where cords had been attached to them. These he assumed were weavers' weights (see A Mound of Many Cities). In this form the weaving was necessarily from top to bottom.
The second type of upright loom is still used in some parts of Syria, especially for weaving coarse goat's hair cloth. In this form the warp is attached to the lower beam and passes vertically upward over another beam and thence to a wall where it is gathered in a rope and tied to a peg, or it is held taut by heavy stone weights. The manipulation is much the same as in the primitive loom, except that the weft is beaten up with an iron comb. The web is wound up on the lower beam as it is woven (compare Isaiah 38:12).
Patterns are woven into the web (1) by making the warp threads of different colors, (2) by alternating colors in the weft, (3) by a combination of (1) and (2); this produces checked work (shibbets, Exodus 28:39 the Revised Version (British and American)); (4) by running special weft threads through only a portion of the warp. This requires much skill and is probably the kind of weaving referred to in Exodus 26:1 ff; Ezekiel 16:13; 27:16; (5) when metals are to be woven, they are rolled thin, cut into narrow strips, wound in spirals about threads of cotton or linen (compare Exodus 28:5 ff; Exodus 39:3 ff). In all these kinds of weaving the Syrian weavers of today are very skillful. If a cylindrical web is referred to in John 19:23, then Jesus' tunic must have been woven with two sets of warp threads on an upright loom so arranged that the weft could be passed first through one shed and then around to the other side and back through the shed of the second set.
Goliath's spear was compared in thickness to that of the weaver's beam, i.e. 2 inches to 2 1/2 inches in diameter (1 Samuel 17:7; 2 Samuel 21:19; 1 Chronicles 11:23; 20:5).
In Job 7:6, if "shuttle" is the right rendering for 'eregh, the reference is to the rapidity with which the thread of the shuttle is used up, as the second part of the verse indicates.
For a very full discussion of the terms employed see A. R. S. Kennedy in EB, IV, 5276-90.
James A. Patch
Web
Wedding
Wedding - See MARRIAGE.
Wedge, of Gold
Wedge, of Gold - wej, (lashon zahabh, literally, "tongue of gold"): A piece of gold in the form of a wedge found by Achan in the sack of Jericho. It was in one of the forms in which gold was used for money and was probably stamped or marked to indicate its weight, which was 50 shekels, i.e. one maneh, according to the Hebrew standard, or nearly two pounds troy. Its value would be 102 British pounds 10 shillings or $510.00 (in 1915). See MONEY; POUND. A wedge, or rather, oblong rectangular strip of gold, of similar weight has been found in the excavations of Gezer (Macalister, Bible Side-Lights, 121). Along with metal rings they were doubtless used as an early form of currency. In Isaiah 13:12 the King James Version, kethem, "pure gold" (so the Revised Version (British and American)), is translated as "golden wedge" on insufficient grounds.
H. Porter
Weeds
Weeds - wedz (cuph, "a weed" (Jonah 2:5)).
Week
Week - wek (shebhua`, from shebha`, "seven"; sabbaton-ta, "from sabbath to sabbath"): The seven-day division of time common to the Hebrews and Babylonians (Genesis 29:27-28; Luke 18:12). See ASTRONOMY; TIME. "Week" is used in the apocalyptic writings of Daniel for an unknown, prophetic period (Daniel 9:24-27). For the names of the days see ASTROLOGY, 12.
Weeks, Feast of
Weeks, Feast of - See PENTECOST.
Weeks, Seventy
Weeks, Seventy - See SEVENTY WEEKS.
Weeping
Weeping - wep'-ing.
See BURIAL,IV , 4, 5, 6.
Weight
Weight - wat (Measure of quantity) mishqal, (mishqol (Ezekiel 4:10), from shaqkal, "to weigh" 'ebhen, "a stone" used for weighing in the balance): Weights were commonly of stone or bronze (or of lead, Zechariah 5:7-8). They were of various forms, such as the lion-shaped weights of Babylonia and Assyria, or in the form of birds and other animals. The Hebrew and Phoenician weights, when made of stone, were barrel-shaped or spindle-shaped, but in bronze they were often cubical or octagonal or with numerous faces (see illustration under WEIGHTS AND MEASURES). Hemispherical or dome-shaped stone weights have been found in Palestine (PEFS, 1902, p. 344; 1903, p. 117; 1904, p. 209).
Figurative: The phrase "without weight" (2 Kings 25:16) signifies a quantity too great to be estimated. "Weight of glory" (2 Corinthians 4:17, baros) has a similar meaning, but with a spiritual reference. "Weighty," "weightier" (Matthew 23:23; 2 Corinthians 10:10, barus, baruteros), signify what is important. The Greek (ogkos) (Hebrews 12:1), is used in the sense of burden, hindrance, as is also the Hebrew neTel (Proverbs 27:3).
H. Porter
Weights and Measures
Weights and Measures - wats me'-zhur : The system of weights and measures in use among the Hebrews was derived from Babylonia and Egypt, especially from the former. The influence of these countries upon Palestine has long been recognized, but archaeological investigations in recent years have shown that the civilization of Babylonia impressed itself upon Syria and Palestine more profoundly in early times than did that of Egypt. The evidence of this has been most clearly shown by the discovery of the Tell el-Amarna Letters, which reveal the fact that the official correspondence between the Egyptian kings and their vassals in these lands was carried on in the language of Babylonia long after its political influence had been supplanted by that of Egypt. It is natural, then, that we should look to Babylonia for the origin of such important elements of civilization as a system of weights and measures.
1. Linear Measures: It was quite natural that men should have found a standard for linear measures in the parts of the human body, and we find the cubit, originally the length of the forearm, taken as the standard, and the span, the palm and the digit, or finger-breadth, associated with it in linear measurement. They do not seem to have employed the foot, though it is represented in the two-thirds of the cubit, which was used by the Babylonians in the manufacture of building-brick.
This system, though adequate enough for man in the earliest times, was not so for an advanced stage of civilization, such as the Babylonians reached before the days of Abraham, and we find that they had introduced a far more accurate and scientific system (see CUBIT). They seem to have employed, however, two cubits, of different lengths, one for commercial purposes and one for building. We have no undoubted examples of either, but judging by the dimensions of their square building-bricks, which are regarded as being two-thirds of a cubit on a side, we judge the latter to have been of about 19 or 20 inches. Now we learn from investigations in Egypt that a similar cubit was employed there, being of from 20.6 to 20.77 inches, and it can hardly be doubted that the Hebrews were familiar with this cubit, but that in more common use was certainly shorter. We have no certain means of determining the length of the ordinary cubit among the Hebrews, but there are two ways by which we may approximate its value. The Siloam Inscription states that the tunnel in which it was found was 1,200 cubits long. The actual length has been found to be about 1,707 feet, which would give a cubit of about 17.1 in. (see PEFS , 1902, 179). Of course the given length may be a round number, but it gives a close approximation.
Again, the Mishna states that the height of a man is 4 cubits, which we may thus regard as the average stature of a Jew in former times. By reference to Jewish tombs we find that they were of a length to give a cubit of something over 17 inches, supposing the stature to be as above, which approximates very closely to the cubit of the Siloam tunnel. The consensus of opinion at the present day inclines toward a cubit of 17.6 inches for commercial purposes and one of about 20 inches for building. This custom of having two standards is illustrated by the practice in Syria today, where the builder's measure, or dra', is about 2 inches longer than the commercial.
Of multiples of the cubit we have the measuring-reed of 6 long cubits, which consisted of a cubit and a hand-breadth each (Ezekiel 40:5), or about 10 feet. Another measure was the Sabbath day's journey, which was reckoned at 2,000 cubits, or about 1,000 yards. The measuring-line was used also, but whether it had a fixed length we do not know.
See SABBATH DAY'S JOURNEY; MEASURING LINE.
In the New Testament we have the fathom (orguia), about 6 feet, and the furlong (stadion), 600 Greek feet or 606 3/4 English feet, which is somewhat less than one-eighth of a mile. The mile (milion) was 5,000 Roman feet, or 4,854 English feet, somewhat less than the English mile.
2. Measures of Capacity: Regarding the absolute value of the measures of capacity among the Hebrews there is rather more uncertainty than there is concerning those of length and weight, since no examples of the former have come down to us; but their relative value is known. Sir Charles Warren considers them to have been derived from the measures of length by cubing the cubit and its divisions, as also in the case of weight. We learn from Ezekiel 45:11 that the bath and ephah were equivalent, and he (Warren) estimates the capacity of these as that of 1/30 of the cubit cubed, or about 2,333.3 cubic inches, which would correspond to about 9 gallons English measure. Assuming this as the standard, we get the following tables for liquid and dry measure: Ce'ah and lethekh, in the above, occur in the Hebrew text, but only in the margin of the English. It will be noticed that the prevailing element in these tables is the duodecimal which corresponds to the sexagesimal of the Babylonian system, but it will be seen that in the case of weights there was a tendency on the part of the Hebrews to employ the decimal system, making the maneh 50 shekels instead of 60, and the talent 3,000 instead of 3,600, of the Babylonian, so here we see the same tendency in making the `omer the tenth of the 'ephah and the 'ephah the tenth of the chomer or kor.
3. Weights: Weights were probably based by the ancients upon grains of wheat or barley, but the Egyptians and Babylonians early adopted a more scientific method. Sir Charles Warren thinks that they took the cubes of the measures of length and ascertained how many grains of barley corresponded to the quantity of water these cubes would contain. Thus, he infers that the Egyptians fixed the weight of a cubic inch of rain water at 220 grains, and the Babylonians at 222 2/9. Taking the cubic palm at 25,928 cubic inches, the weight of that quantity of water would be 5,760 ancient grains. The talent he regards as the weight of 2/3 of a cubit cubed, which would be equal to 101,6 cubic palms, but assumes that for convenience it was taken at 100, the weight being 576,000 grains, deriving from this the maneh (1/60 of the talent) of 9,600 grains, and a shekel (1/50 of the maneh) 192 grains. But we have evidence that the Hebrew shekel differed from this and that they used different shekels at different periods. The shekel derived from Babylonia had a double standard: the light of 160 grains, or 1/3600 of the talent; and the heavy of just double this, of 320 grains. The former seems to have been used before the captivity and the latter after. The Babylonian system was sexagesimal, i.e. 60 shekels went to the maneh and 60 manehs to the talent, but the Hebrews reckoned only 50 shekels to the maneh, as appears from Exodus 38:25-26, where it is stated that the amount of silver collected from 603,550 males was 100 talents and Exodus 1:1-22, / 775 shekels, and, as each contributed a half-shekel, the whole amount must have been 301,775. Deducting the Exodus 1:1-22, / 775 shekels mentioned besides the 100 talents, we have 300,000 or Exodus 3:1-22, 000 to the talent, and, as there were 60 manehs in the talent, there were 50 shekels to each maneh. When the Hebrews adopted this system we do not know, but it was in vogue at a very early date.
The shekel was divided into gerahs, 20 to a shekel (Exodus 30:13). The gerah (gerah) is supposed to be some kind of seed, perhaps a bean or some such plant. The shekel of which it formed a part was probably the royal or commercial shekel of 160 grains, derived from Babylon. But the Hebrews certainly had another shekel, called the Phoenician from its being the standard of the Phoenician traders. This would be natural on account of the close connection of the two peoples ever since the days of David and Solomon, but we have certain evidence of it from the extant examples of the monetary shekels of the Jews, which are of this standard, or very nearly so, allowing some loss from abrasion. The Phoenician shekel was about 224 grains, varying somewhat in different localities, and the Jewish shekels now in existence vary from 212 to 220 grains. They were coined after the captivity (see COINS), but whether this standard was in use before we have no means of knowing.
Examples of ancient weights have been discovered in Palestine by archaeological research during recent years, among them one from Samaria, obtained by Dr. Chaplin, bearing the inscription, in Hebrew rebha` netseph. This is interpreted, by the help of the cognate Arabic, as meaning "quarter-half," i.e. of a shekel. The actual weight is 39.2 grains, which, allowing a slight loss, would correspond quite closely to a quarter-shekel of the light Babylonian standard of 160 grains, or the quarter of the half of the double standard. Another specimen discovered at Tell Zakariyeh weighs 154 grains, which would seem to belong to the same standard. The weights, of which illustrations are given in the table, are all in the collection of the Syrian Protestant College, at Beirut, and were obtained from Palestine and Phoenicia and are of the Phoenician standard, which was the common commercial standard of Palestine. The largest, of the spindle or barrel type, weighs 1,350 grains, or 87.46 grams, evidently intended for a 6-shekel weight, and the smaller ones of the same type are fractions of the Phoenician shekel. They were of the same standard, one a shekel and the other a two-shekel weight. They each have 12 faces, and the smaller has a lion stamped on each face save one, reminding us of the lion-weights discovered in Assyria and Babylonia. The spindle weights are of black stone, the others of bronze.
The above is the Phoenician standard. In the Babylonian the shekel would be 160 or 320 grains; the maneh 8,000 or 16,000, and the talent 480,000 or 960,000 grains, according as it was of the light or heavy standard.
H. Porter
Well
Well - (1) (be'er; compare Arabic bi'r, "well" or "cistern"; usually artificial: "And Isaac's servants digged (dug) in the valley, and found there a well of springing (margin "living") water" (Genesis 26:19); some times covered: "Jacob .... rolled the stone from the well's mouth" (Genesis 29:10). Be'er may also be a pit: "The vale of Siddim was full of slime pits" (Genesis 14:10); "the pit of destruction" (Psalms 55:23). (2) (bor), usually "pit": "Let us slay him, and cast him into one of the pits" (Genesis 37:20); may be "well": "drew water out of the well of Beth-lehem" (2 Samuel 23:16).
(3) (pege), usually "running water," "fount," or "source": "Doth the fountain send forth from the same opening sweet water and bitter?" (James 3:11); may be "well"; compare "Jacob's well" (John 4:6). (4) (phrear), usually "pit": "the pit of the abyss" (Revelation 9:1); but "well"; compare "Jacob's well" (John 4:11-12): "Which of you shall have an ass or an ox fallen into a well" (the King James Version "pit") (Luke 14:5). (5) (krene), "wells" (Sirach 48:17), Latin, fons, "spring" (2 Esdras 2:32).
(6) ayin), compare Arabic `ain "fountain," "spring": "the fountain (English Versions of the Bible) which is in Jezreel" (1 Samuel 29:1); "In Elim were twelve springs (the King James Version "fountains"] of water" (Numbers 33:9); "She (Rebekah) went down to the fountain" (the King James Version "well") (Genesis 24:16); "the jackal's well" (the English Revised Version "the dragon's well," the King James Version "the dragon well") (Nehemiah 2:13). (7) (ma`yan), same root as (6); "the fountain (the King James Version "well") of the waters of Nephtoah" (Joshua 18:15); "Passing through the valley of Weeping (the King James Version "Baca") they make it a place of springs" (the King James Version "well") (Psalms 84:6); "Ye shall draw water out of the wells of salvation" (Isaiah 12:3). (8) (maqor), usually figurative: "With thee is the fountain of life" (Psalms 36:9); "The mouth of the righteous is a fountain (the King James Version "well") of life" (Proverbs 10:11); "make her (Babylon's) fountain (the King James Version "spring") dry" (Jeremiah 51:36); "a corrupted spring" (Proverbs 25:26). (9) (mabbu`), (nabha`, "to flow," "spring," "bubble up"; compare Arabic (nab`, manba`, yanbu`) "fountain": "or the pitcher is broken at the fountain" (Ecclesiastes 12:6); "the thirsty ground springs of water" (Isaiah 35:7). (10) (motsa'), "spring," (yatsa'), "to go out," "the dry land springs of water" (Isaiah 41:18); "a dry land into watersprings" (Psalms 107:35); "the upper spring of the waters of Gihon" (2 Chronicles 32:30). (11) (nebhekh), root uncertain, reading doubtful; only in Job 38:16, "Hast thou entered into the springs of the sea?" (12) (tehom), "deep," "abyss"; compare Genesis 1:2; translated "springs," the King James Version "depths" (Deuteronomy 8:7). (13) (gal), (galal), "to roll"; compare Gilgal (Joshua 5:9); "a spring shut up" (Song of Solomon 4:12). (14) (gullah), "bowl," "basin," "pool," same root: "Give me also springs of water. And he gave her the upper sprigs and the nether springs" (Joshua 15:19); compare Arabic (kullat), pronounced gullat, "a marble," "a cannon-ball."
As is clear from references cited above, wells and springs were not sharply distinguished in name, though be'er, and phrear are used mainly of wells, and `ayin, ma`yan, motsa', mabbua` and (poetically) maqor are chiefly used of fountains. The Arabic bi'r, the equivalent of the Hebrew be'er, usually denotes a cistern for rain-water, though it may be qualified as bi'r jam`, "well of gathering," i.e. for rain-water, or as bi'r nab`, "well of springing water." A spring or natural fountain is called in Arabic `ain or nab` (compare Hebrew `ayin and mabbua`). These Arabic and Hebrew words for "well" and "spring" figure largely in place-names, modern and ancient: Beer (Numbers 21:16); Beer-elim (Isaiah 15:8), etc.; `Ain (a) on the northeast boundary of Palestine (Numbers 34:11), (b) in the South of Judah, perhaps = En-rimmon (Joshua 15:32); Enaim (Genesis 38:14); Enam (Joshua 15:34), etc. Modern Arabic names with `ain are very numerous, e.g. `Ainul-fashkhah, `Ain-ul-chajleh, `Ain-karim, etc.
See CISTERN; FOUNTAIN; PIT; POOL.
Alfred Ely Day
Well, Jacob's
Well, Jacob's - See JACOB'S WELL.
Wellspring
Wellspring - wel'-spring (maqor): Usually "spring" or "fountain" (figuratively), translated "wellspring" only in two passages: "Understanding is a wellspring of life unto him that hath it" (Proverbs 16:22); "The wellspring of wisdom is as a flowing brook" (Proverbs 18:4). See Burroughs, Pepacton, p. 35; WELL.
Wen
Wen - Only in Leviticus 22:22, "maimed" or "having a wen (margin "sores"), or scurvy," for (yabbal), "running," hence, "a suppurating sore" (compare the Revised Version margin). A "wen" is a non-inflamed indolent tumor, and so "wen" is about as far as possible from the meaning of the Hebrew.
Wench
Wench - wench, wensh (shiphchah): The word "wench" is found only in 2 Samuel 17:17 the King James Version, where the Revised Version (British and American) has "maid-servant." The Hebrew word shiphchah here used is a common term for maid-servant, female slave. the King James Version used the word "wench" to convey the meaning maid-servant, which was a common use of the word at that time, but it is now practically obsolete.
West
West - (1) Usually (yam), "sea" because the Mediterranean lies to the West of Palestine; not usually in figurative expressions; but compare Hosea 11:10. (2) Often (ma`arabh); compare Arabic (gharb), and (maghrib), "west" (maghrib-ush-shems), or simply (maghrib), "sunset." (3) (mebho' ha-chemesh), "entrance of the sun," (mabho', bo'), "to come in." (Just as mizrach, is the rising of the sun, or east, so mabho' (or ma'arabh], is the setting of the sun, or west: "From the rising of the sun (mizrach-shemesh) unto the going down (mabho) thereof" (Psalms 50:1; compare Psalms 113:3; Malachi 1:11).) (4) (dusme, from duo), "to enter," "sink," "set." The Greek usage is parallel to the Hebrew just cited: "Many shall come from the east anatole, "rising") and the west" (dusme, "setting") (Matthew 8:11).
The chief figurative use of the word "west" is in combination with "east" to denote great or infinite distance, as:
"As far as the east is from the west,
So far hath he removed our transgressions
from us" (Psalms 103:12).
Alfred Ely Day
Whale
Whale - hwal: (1) ketos (Sirach 43:25 (the Revised Version (British and American) "sea-monster"); The Song of Three Children verse 57 (the Revised Version (British and American) "whale"); Matthew 12:40 (the Revised Version (British and American) "whale," margin "sea-monster"; the King James Version "whale" throughout)). (2) tannin (Genesis 1:21; Job 7:12), "sea-monster," the King James Version "whale." (3) tannim (Ezekiel 32:2), "monster," the English Revised Version "dragon" the King James Version "whale" the King James Version margin "dragon."
It will be seen from the above references that the word "whale" does not occur in the Revised Version (British and American) except in The Song of Three Children verse 57 and Matthew 12:40. Ketos, the original word in these passages, is, according to Liddell and Scott, used by Aristotle for "whale," Aristotle using also the adjective ketodes, "cetacean"; Homer and Herodotus used ketos for any large fish or sea-monster or for a seal. It is used in Euripides of the monster to which Andromeda was exposed. In the Hebrew, in the Book of Jonah, we find dagh or daghah, the ordinary word for "fish": "And Yahweh prepared great fish to swallow up Jonah" (Jonah 1:17). Whales are found in the Mediterranean and are sometimes cast up on the shore of Palestine, but it is not likely that the ancient Greeks or Hebrews were very familiar with them, and it is by no means certain that whale is referred to, either in the original Jonah story or in the New Testament reference to it. If any particular animal is meant, it is more likely a shark. Sharks are much more familiar objects in the Mediterranean than whales, and some of them are of large size.
See FISH.
In Genesis 1:21, "And God created the great seamonsters" (the King James Version, "whales"), and Job 7:12,
"Am I a sea, or a sea-monster (the King James Version "whale"),
That thou settest a watch over me?"
The Hebrew has tannin, which word occurs 14 times in the Old Testament and in the American Standard Revised Version is translated "monster," "sea-monster," or "serpent," and, exceptionally, in Lamentations 4:3, "jackals." the King James Version renders in several passages "dragon" (compare Ezekiel 29:3 the English Revised Version).
Tannim in Ezekiel 29:3 and Ezekiel 32:2 is believed to stand for tannin. the American Standard Revised Version has "monster," the English Revised Version "dragon," the King James Version "whale," the King James Version margin "dragon," in Ezekiel 32:2, and "dragon" in Ezekiel 29:3. Tannim occurs in 11 other passages, where it is considered to be the plural of tan, and in the Revised Version (British and American) is translated "jackals," in the King James Version "dragons" (Job 30:29; Psalms 44:19; Isaiah 13:22; 34:13; 35:7; 43:20; Jeremiah 9:11; 10:22; 14:6; 49:33; 51:37). In Malachi 1:3 we find the feminine plural tannoth.
Alfred Ely Day
Wheat
Wheat - hwet ((1) chiTTah, the specific word for wheat (Genesis 30:14; Exodus 34:22, etc.), with puros (Judith 3:3; Sirach 39:26); (2) bar, or bar (Jeremiah 23:28; Joel 2:24; Amos 5:11; 8:6); in other passages translated "grain" or "corn"; (3) sitos (Matthew 3:12; Matthew 13:25, 29-30; Luke 3:17; 16:7; 22:31, etc.) (for other words translated occasionally "wheat" in the King James Version see CORN; FOOD)): Wheat, usually the bearded variety, is cultivated all over Palestine, though less so than barley. The great plain of the Hauran is a vast expanse of wheat fields in the spring; considerable quantities are exported via Beirut, Haifa, and Gaza. The "wheat harvest" was in olden times one of the regular divisions of the year (Exodus 34:22; Judges 15:1; 1 Samuel 12:17); it follows the barley harvest (Exodus 9:31-32), occurring in April, May or June, according to the altitude.
E. W. G. Masterman
Wheel
Wheel - hwel: (1) 'ophan, is the usual word (Exodus 14:25, etc.). In Proverbs 20:26; Isaiah 28:27 the rollers of a threshing wagon are meant (see AGRICULTURE). (2) galgal, "rolling thing," generally in the sense of "wheel" (Isaiah 5:28, etc.), but the Revised Version (British and American) in Ezekiel 10:2, 6, 13 has "whirling wheels," an advantageous change. The "wheel .... broken at the cistern" in Ecclesiastes 12:6 is the windlass for drawing the water, and by the figure the breakdown of the old man's breathing apparatus is probably meant. In Psalms 83:13, the King James Version has "wheel," but this translation (that of the Septuagint) is quite impossible; the Revised Version (British and American) "whirling dust" (sucked up by a miniature whirlwind) is perhaps right, but the translations proposed are end-less. (3) gilgal, Isaiah 28:28, the roller of a threshing wagon. (4) 'obhnayim, Jeremiah 18:3. See POTTER. (5) pa`am, Judges 5:28, literally, "step" (so the Revised Version margin), and the sound of horses' hoofs is intended. (6) trochos, Sirach 33:5; James 3:6 (the King James Version "course"). In the former passage, "The heart of a fool is as a cart-wheel," the changeableness of a light disposition is satirized. In James the figure is of a wheel in rotation, so that a flame starting at any point is quickly communicated to the whole. Just so an apparently insignificant sin of the tongue produces an incalculably destructive effect.
The phrase "wheel of nature" (trochos tes geneseos) is used here for "the world in progress." It is not a very natural figure and has given rise to much discussion. the King James Version accents trochos ("course") instead of trochos (" wheel"). but the language throughout is metaphorical and "course" is not a sufficiently metaphorical word. The translation "birth" for geneseos (so the Revised Version margin). i.e. "a wheel set in motion by birth." is out of the question. as the argument turns on results wider than any individual's existence. "Wheel of nature" is certainly right. But a comparison of life to a wheel in some sense or other (chiefly that of "Fortune's wheel") is common enough in Greek and Latin writers, and, indeed the exact combination trochos geneseos is found in at least one (Orphic) writer (full references in the commentaries of Mayor and W. Bauer). It would seem, then, that James had heard the phrase, and he used it as a striking figure, with entire indifference to any technical significance it might have. This supposition is preferable to that of an awkward translation from the Aramaic.
See COURSE.
Burton Scott Easton
Whelp
Whelp - hwelp (gur, or gor; either absol. (Ezekiel 19:2-3, 5; Nab 2:12); or constr. with 'aryeh, "lion" (Genesis 49:9; Deuteronomy 33:22; Jeremiah 51:38; Nahum 2:11); also benelabhi', literally, "sons of a lioness," translated "the whelps of the lioness" (Job 4:11). In Job 28:8, the King James Version has "lion's whelps" for bene shachats, which the Revised Version (British and American) renders "proud beasts," margin "sons of pride." In Lamentations 4:3 gur is used of the young of tannin the Revised Version (British and American) "jackal," the King James Version "sea-monsters," the King James Version margin "sea-calves"; it may possibly mean "wolves"; skumnos, the technical word for "lion's whelp" (1 Maccabees 3:4)): These references are all figurative: "Judah is a lion's whelp" (Genesis 49:9); "Dan is a lion's whelp" (Deuteronomy 33:22); it is said of the Babylonians, "They shall roar together like young lions; they shall growl as lions' whelps" (Jeremiah 51:38); of the Assyrians, "Where is the den of the lions, and the feeding-place of the young lions, where the lion and the lioness walked, the lion's whelp, and none made them afraid? The lion did tear in pieces enough for his whelps, and strangled for his lionesses, and filled his caves with prey, and his dens with ravin" (Nahum 2:11-12). In Ezekiel 19:2-9, the princes of Israel are compared to lions' whelps.
Alfred Ely Day
Whirlwind
Whirlwind - hwurl'-wind (cuphah (Proverbs 1:27; 10:25; Isaiah 5:28; 17:13; 66:15; Hosea 8:7; Amos 1:14; Nab 1:3), ca`ar (Habakkuk 3:14; Zechariah 7:14; Hosea 13:3; Psalms 58:9; Daniel 11:40), ce`arah (2 Kings 2:1; Job 38:1; 40:6; Isaiah 40:24; 41:16; Zechariah 9:14)): When two currents from opposite directions meet, a circular motion results called a whirlwind. On the sea this takes up small particles of water from the sea and condenses some of the moisture in the clouds above, forming a great funnel-shaped column. They are quite common off the coast of Syria. Considerable damage might be done to a small ship overtaken by them. In the desert sand is taken up in the same way, causing terrible sandstorms which are greatly dreaded by caravans. Most of the references in the Bible do not necessarily imply a circular motion, and the word "tempest" might be used in translation.
Storms usually come from the Southwest. "Out of the .... south cometh the storm" (Job 37:9); yet in Ezekiel's vision he saw a whirlwind coming out of the north (Ezekiel 1:4). Elijah "went up by a whirlwind into heaven" (2 Kings 2:11). The whirlwind indicates the power and might of Yahweh: "Yahweh hath his way in the whirlwind and in the storm" (Nahum 1:3); He "answered Job out of the whirlwind" (Job 38:1).
Most of the Scriptural uses are figurative; of destruction: "He will take them away with a whirlwind" (Psalms 58:9; Proverbs 1:27; 10:25; Hosea 13:3; Daniel 11:40; Amos 1:14; Habakkuk 3:14; Zechariah 7:14); of quickness: "wheels as a whirlwind" (Isaiah 5:28; 66:15; Jeremiah 4:13); of the anger of God: "A whirlwind of the Lord is gone forth in fury" (Jeremiah 23:19 the King James Version); of punishment to the wicked: "A continuing whirlwind .... shall fall .... on the wicked" (Jeremiah 30:23 the King James Version).
Alfred H. Joy
White
White - hwit.
See COLORS .
White Horse
White Horse - See HORSE, WHITE.
Whitewash
Whitewash - hwit'wosh: the American Revised Version margin gives "whitewash" for "untempered mortar" in Ezekiel 13:10 and Ezekiel 22:28. `Her prophets have daubed for them,' i.e. seconded them, "with whitewash," thus giving "a slight wall" (Ezekiel 13:10 margin) a specious appearance of strength.
See MORTAR; UNTEMPERED.
Whole; Wholesome
Whole; Wholesome - hol, hol'-sum: "Whole," originally "hale" (a word still in poetic use), had at first the meaning now expressed by its derivative "healthy." In this sense "whole" is fairly common (Job 5:18, etc.) in English Versions of the Bible, although much more common in the New Testament than in the Old Testament. From this meaning "healthy," the transition to the modern force. "complete," "perfect," "entire" (Exodus 12:6, ere) was not unnatural, and it is in this later sense alone that the adverb "wholly" (Leviticus 6:22, etc.) is used. "Wholesome," however, is derived from the earlier meaning of "whole." It occurs in Proverbs 15:4, the King James Version, the English Revised Version, "a wholesome tongue" (rapha', "heal," the Revised Version margin "the healing of the tongue," the American Standard Revised Version "a gentle tongue"), and in 1 Timothy 6:3, the King James Version "wholesome words" (hugiaino, "be healthy," the Revised Version margin "healthful," the Revised Version (British and American) "sound").
Burton Scott Easton
Whore; Whoredom
Whore; Whoredom - hor, hor'-dum.
See CRIMES ; HARLOT; PUNISHMENTS.
Wickedness
Wickedness - wik'-ed-nes:
1. In the Old Testament: The state of being wicked; a mental disregard for justice, righteousness, truth, honor, virtue; evil in thought and life; depravity; sinfulness; criminality. See SIN. Many words are rendered "wickedness." There are many synonyms for wickedness in English and also in the Hebrew. Pride and vanity lead to it: "All the proud, and all that work wickedness (rish`ah) shall be stubble" (Malachi 4:1). Akin to this is the word `awen, "iniquity," "vanity": "She eateth, and wipeth her mouth, and saith, I have done no wickedness" (Proverbs 30:20). Then we have the word hawwah, meaning "mischief," "calamity," coming from inward intent upon evil: "Lo, this is the man that made not God his strength, but trusted in the abundance of his riches, and strengthened himself in his wickedness" (Psalms 52:7); zimmah, "wickedness" in thought, carnality or lust harbored: "And if a man take a wife and her mother, it is wickedness" (Leviticus 20:14); `awlah, "perverseness," "Neither shall the children of wickedness afflict them any more, as at the first" (2 Samuel 7:10). The word for evil ra`) is many times employed to represent wickedness: "Remember all their wickedness" (Hosea 7:2). Wickedness like all forms and thoughts of wrong, kept warm in mind, seems to be a thing of growth; it begins with a thought, then a deed, then a character, and finally a destiny. Even in this life men increase in wickedness till they have lost all desire for that which is good in the sight of God and good men; the men in the vision of Isaiah seem to be in a condition beyond which the human heart cannot go: "Woe unto them that call evil good, and good evil; that put darkness for light, and light for darkness" (Isaiah 5:20). Shades of thought are added by such words as roa`, "evil," "badness": "Give them according to their work, and according to the wickedness of their doings" (Psalms 28:4). And resha` or rish`ah, also gives the common thought of wrong, wickedness. The prophets were strong in denunciations of all iniquity, perverseness, and in announcing the curse of God which would certainly follow.
2. In the New Testament: Wickedness, malignity, evil in thought and purpose is presented by the word poneria: "But Jesus perceived their wickedness, and said, Why make ye trial of me, ye hypocrites?" (Matthew 22:18). Jesus points out the origin of all wrong: "For from within, out of the heart of men, evil thoughts proceed .... wickednesses, deceit, lasciviousness .... all these evil things proceed from within, and defile the man" (Mark 7:21-23). See Imitation of Christ, xiii, 5.
David Roberts Dungan
Widow
Widow - wid'-o ('almanah; chera): In the Old Testament widows are considered to be under the special care of Yahweh (Psalms 68:5; 146:9; Proverbs 15:25). Sympathetic regard for them comes to be viewed as a mark of true religion (Job 31:16; James 1:27). Deuteronomy is rich in counsel in their behalf (24:17, etc.).
The word is first mentioned in the New Testament in Acts 6:1: "There arose a murmuring of the Grecian Jews against the Hebrews, because their widows were neglected in the daily ministration." Paul charges that they be particularly cared for, especially those that are "widows indeed," i.e. poor, without support and old (1 Timothy 5:2-16). Some try to find proof in this passage of that ecclesiastical order of widows mentioned in post-apostolic writings.
See LITERATURE, SUB-APOSTOLIC; WOMAN,IV , 5.
George B. Eager
Wife
Wife - wif.
See MARRIAGE; RELATIONSHIPS, FAMILY.
Wife, Brother's
Wife, Brother's - See MARRIAGE; RELATIONSHIPS, FAMILY.
Wild Beast
Wild Beast - wild best: (1) ziz, only with sadhay, "field," in the expression, ziz sadhay, translated "wild beasts of the field" (Psalms 50:11; 80:13); compare Targum to Psalms 80:13, ziza', "worm" (BDB); Arabic ziz, "worm." (2) tsiyim (Isaiah 13:21; 34:14; Jeremiah 50:39). (3) 'iyim (Isaiah 13:21; 34:14; Jeremiah 50:39). (4) chay, "living thing," often translated "wild beast" in English Versions of the Bible (1 Samuel 17:46, etc.). (5) In Apocrypha (Additions to Esther 16:24, etc.) and the New Testament (Mark 1:13), therion. (6) Acts 10:12 the King James Version; Acts 11:6, tetrapodon, the Revised Version (British and American) "four-rooted beast."
(1), (2) and (3) are of doubtful etymology, but the context makes it clear in each case that wild beasts of some sort are meant. The Targum ziza', "worm," is possible in Psalms 80:13, though not probable in view of the parallel "boar": "The boar out of the wood doth ravage it, and the wild beasts of the field feed on it," i.e. on the vine (figurative) brought out of Egypt. In Psalms 50:11, however, such an interpretation is out of the question. All the references from Psalms 50:8 to Psalms 50:13 are to large animals, bullocks, goats, cattle and birds. Vulgate (Jerome's Latin Bible, 390-405 A.D.) and the Septuagint have in 80:13 "wild beast" and in 50:11 "beauty of the field" (translated)!
Tsiyim, doubtfully referred to tsiydh, "drought," occurs in prophecies of the desolation of Babylon in Isaiah 13:21 ("wild beasts of the desert") and Jeremiah 50:39, of Edom in Isaiah 34:14, of Assyria in Isaiah 23:13 ("them that dwell in the wilderness"). It is associated in these passages with names of wild beasts and birds, some of them of very doubtful meaning, such as tannim, 'ochim, 'iyim, se`irim, benoth ya`anah. Wild beasts of some sort are clearly meant, though the kind can only be conjectured. The word occurs in Psalms 74:14 ("the people inhabiting the wilderness") where it is possible to understand "beasts" instead of people. It occurs also in Psalms 72:9 ("they that dwell in the wilderness"), where it seems necessary to understand "men." If the reading stands, it is not easy to reconcile this passage with the others.
'Iyim occurs in Isaiah 13:21 and Isaiah 34:14 and in Jeremiah 50:39, three of the passages cited for tsiyim. the King James Version referring to 'i, "island," renders "wild beasts of the islands" (Isaiah 13:22). the Revised Version (British and American) has "wolves," margin "howling creatures"; compare Arabic `anwa', "to howl," and ibn-'awa' or wawi, "jackal."
See JACKAL.
Alfred Ely
Wild Ox
Wild Ox - (re'em): The word "unicorn" occurs in the King James Version in Numbers 23:22; 24:8; Deuteronomy 33:17; Job 39:9-10; Psalms 22:21; 29:6; 92:10; Isaiah 34:7 (the King James Version margin "rhinoceros"). the Revised Version (British and American) has everywhere "wild-ox" (margin "ox-antelope," Numbers 23:22). The Septuagint has monokeros, "one-horned," except in Isaiah 34:7, where we find hoi hadroi, "the large ones," "the bulky ones." In this passage also the Septuagint has hoi krioi, "the rams," instead of English Versions of the Bible "bullocks." Vulgate (Jerome's Latin Bible, 390-405 A.D.) has rhinoceros in Numbers 23:22; 24:8; Deuteronomy 33:17; Job 39:9-10; and unicornis in Psalms 22:21 (Psalms 21:13); Psalms 29:6 (Psalms 28:6); Psalms 92:10 (Psalms 91:11); Isaiah 34:7.
As stated in the articles on ANTELOPE and CATTLE, re'em and te'o (Deuteronomy 14:5; Isaiah 51:20) may both be the Arabian oryx (Oryx beatrix), of which the common vernacular name means "wild-ox." It may be presumed that "ox-antelope" of Numbers 23:22 the Revised Version margin is meant to indicate this animal, which is swift and fierce, and has a pair of very long, sharp and nearly straight horns. The writer feels, however, that more consideration should be given to the view of Tristram (Natural History of the Bible) that re'em is the urus or aurochs, the primitive Bos taurus, which seems to be depicted in Assyrian monuments and referred to as remu (BDB). The etymology of re'em is uncertain, but the word may be from a root signifying "to rise" or "to be high." At any rate, there is no etymological warrant for the assumption that it was a one-horned creature. The Arabic raim, is used of a light-colored gazelle. The great strength and fierceness implied in most of the references suit the wild-ox better than the oryx. On the other hand, Edom (Isaiah 34:7) was adjacent to the present home of the oryx, while there is no reason to suppose that the wild-ox came nearer than Northern Assyria. There is possibly a reference to the long horns of the oryx in "But my horn hast thou exalted like the horn of the wild-ox" (Psalms 92:10). For te'o, The Septuagint has orux, in Deuteronomy 14:5 (but seutlion hemiephthon, "half-boiled beet" (!) in Isaiah 51:20). Vulgate (Jerome's Latin Bible, 390-405 A.D.) has oryx in both passages. While we admit that both re'em and te'o may be the oryx, it is perhaps best to follow the Revised Version margin, rendering re'em "wild-ox." The rendering of "antelope" (Revised Version) for te'o is defensible, but "oryx" would be better, because the oryx is the
only antelope that could possibly be meant, it and the gazelle (tsebhi), already mentioned in Deuteronomy 14:5, being the only antelopes known to occur in Palestine and Arabia. In Isaiah 34:7 it seems to be implied that the re'em might be used in sacrifice.
Figurative: The wild-ox is used as a symbol of the strength of Israel: "He hath as it were the strength of the wild-ox". (Numbers 23:22; 24:8). In the blessing of the children of Israel by Moses it is said of Joseph:
"And his horns are the horns of the wild-ox:
With them he shall push the peoples all of them,
even the ends of the earth" (Deuteronomy 33:17).
The Psalmist (Psalms 29:5-6) in describing the power of Yahweh says:
"Yea, Yahweh breaketh in pieces the cedars of Lebanon.
He maketh them also to skip like a calf;
Lebanon and Sirion like a young wild-ox."
Again, in praise for Yahweh's goodness (Psalms 92:10): "But my horn hast thou exalted like the horn of the wildox."
In Job 39:9-12 the subduing and training of the wild-ox are cited among the things beyond man's power and understanding.
Alfred Ely Day
Wilderness
Wilderness - wil'-der-nes.
See DESERT; JUDAEA,WILDERNESS OF ; WANDERINGS OF ISRAEL.
Will
Will - See TESTAMENT.
Will, Volition
Will, Volition - vo-lish'-un ('abhah, ratson; thelo) boulomai, thelema: "Will" as noun and verb, transitive and intrans, carries in it the idea of "wish," "purpose," "volition." "Will" is also used as an auxiliary of the future tense of other words, but the independent verb is frequent, and it is often important to distinguish between it and the mere auxiliary, especially in the New Testament.
In the Old Testament the word chiefly rendered "to will" is 'abhah, "to breathe after," "to long for." With the exception of Job 39:9; Isaiah 1:19, it is accompanied by a negation, and is used of both man and God. Several other words are employed, but only sparsely. "Will" as noun is the translation chiefly of ratson, "good-will," "willfulness" (Genesis 49:6), with emphasis on the voluntariness of action (Leviticus 1:3; 19:5; 19, 29, etc.); also of nephesh, and a few other words. In the New Testament "will" is chiefly the translation of thelo and boulomai, the difference between the two being that thelo expresses an active choice or purpose, boulomai, "passive inclination or willingness, or the inward predisposition from which the active choice proceeds" (compare Mark 15:9, 12 with Mark 15:15). "Will," noun, is thelema. With the exception of a few passages, it is used of the will of God (over all, Matthew 18:14; in all things to be done, Matthew 6:10; 26:42 parallel, etc.; ordering all things, Ephesians 1:11, etc.); human will, however, may oppose itself to the will of God (Luke 23:25; John 1:13; Romans 7:18; here the capacity to will is distinguished from the power to do, etc.). Boulema is properly counsel or purpose. While it is possible to oppose the will of God, His counsel or purpose cannot be frustrated (Acts 2:23; 4:28; Romans 9:19; Ephesians 1:11; Hebrews 6:17); it may, however, be resisted for a time (Luke 7:30).
In Apocrypha, for "will" we have thelema (1 Esdras 9:9 (of God); Ecclesiasticus 43:16; 1 Maccabees 3:60; Ecclesiastes 8:15, "his own will"); boule (Wisdom of Solomon 9:13, the Revised Version (British and American) "counsel); boulema (2 Maccabees 15:5, "wicked will," the Revised Version (British and American) "cruel purpose"); "willful" (Ecclesiasticus 30:8) is proales, the Revised Version (British and American) "headstrong"; "willing" (Wisdom of Solomon 14:19), boulomai, the Revised Version (British and American) "wishing"; thelo (Ecclesiastes 6:12); "wilt" (Wisdom of Solomon 12:18), thelo, the Revised Version (British and American) "hast the will" (compare 2 Maccabees 7:16).
The Revised Version (British and American) has many changes, several of them of note as bringing out the distinction between the auxiliary and the independent verb. Thus, Matthew 11:27, "willeth to"; John 7:17, "if any man willeth to do his will"; 1 Timothy 6:9, the American Standard Revised Version "they that are minded to be rich," the English Revised Version "desire," etc.
The words employed and passages cited show clearly that man is always regarded as a responsible being, free to will in harmony with the divine will or contrary to it. This is further shown by the various words denoting refusal. "Ye will not come to me, that ye may have life" (John 5:40). So with respect to temptation. We may even choose and act deliberately in opposition to the will of God. Yet God's counsel, His will in its completeness, ever prevails, and man, in resisting it, deprives himself of the good it seeks to confer upon him.
In modern psychology the tendency is to make will primary and distinctive of personality.
W. L. Walker
Willow Tree
Willow Tree - wil'-o-tre (tsaphtsaphah): Comparison with the Arabic cafcaf, "the willow," makes it very probable that thc translation of Ezekiel 17:5 is correct.
Willows
Willows - wil'-oz (`arabhim); itea (Leviticus 23:40; Job 40:22; Psalms 137:2; Isaiah 15:7; 44:4)): In all references this tree is mentioned as beside running water. They may all refer to the willow, two varieties of which, Salix fragilis and S. alba, occur commonly in Palestine, or to the closely allied Populus euphratus (also Natural Order Salicaceae), which is even more plentiful, especially on the Jordan and its tributaries. The Brook of the Willows (Isaiah 15:7) must have been some stream running from Moab to the Jordan or Dead Sea. Popular fancy has associated the willows of Psalms 137:2 with the so-called "weeping willow" (Salix babylonica), but though this tree is found today in Palestine, it is an introduction from Japan and cannot have existed "by the waters of Babylon" at the time of the captivity.
E. W. G. Masterman
Willows, the Brook of The
Willows, the Brook of The - Evidently mentioned as the boundary of Moab (Isaiah 15:7) and generally identified with the brook Zered.
Will-worship
Will-worship - In Colossians 2:23, "a show of wisdom in will-worship," for ethelothreskia), a word found nowhere else but formed exactly like "will-worship": worship originating in the human will as opposed to the divine, arbitrary religious acts, worthless despite their difficulty of performance.
Wimple
Wimple - wim'-p'l: the Revised Version (British and American) substitutes "shawls" for the King James Version "wimples" in Isaiah 3:22. The precise article of dress intended is unknown.
See DRESS.
Wind
Wind - wind (anemos:
1. Causes: Unequal distribution of heat in the atmosphere causes currents of air or wind. The heated air rises and the air from around rushes in. The direction from which a current comes determines its name, as west wind coming from the West but blowing toward the East. When two currents of air of different directions meet, a spiral motion sometimes results.
See WHIRLWIND.
2. West Wind: In Palestine the west wind is the most common. It comes from the sea and carries the moisture which condenses to form clouds, as it is turned upward by the mountains, to the cooler layers of the atmosphere. If the temperature reached is cool enough the cloud condenses and rain falls. Elijah looked toward the West for the "small cloud," and soon "the heavens grew black with clouds and wind" (1 Kings 18:44 f). "When ye see a cloud rising in the west, straightway ye say, There cometh a shower; and so it cometh to pass" (Luke 12:54).
3. South Wind: The south wind is frequent in Palestine. If it is slightly Southwest, it may bring rain, but if it is due South or Southeast, there is no rain. It is a warm wind bringing good weather. "When ye see a south wind blowing, ye say, There will be a scorching heat; and it cometh to pass" (Luke 12:55). In the cooler months it is a gentle, balmy wind, so that the "earth is still by reason of the south wind" (Job 37:17; compare Song of Solomon 4:16).
4. North Wind: The north wind is usually a strong, continuous wind blowing down from the northern hills, and while it is cool it always "drives away rain," as correctly stated in Proverbs 25:23, the King James Version; yet it is a disagreeable wind, and often causes headache and fever.
5. East Wind: The east wind or sirocco (from Arabic shark= "east") is the "scorching wind" (James 1:11) from the desert. It is a hot, gusty wind laden with sand and dust and occurs most frequently in May and October. The temperature in a given place often rises 15 or 20 degrees within a few hours, bringing thermometer to the highest readings of the year. It is customary for the people to close up the houses tightly to keep out the dust and heat. The heat and dryness wither all vegetation (Genesis 41:6). Happily the wind seldom lasts for more than three days at a time. It is the destructive "wind of the wilderness" (Job 1:19; Jeremiah 4:11; 13:24): "Yahweh caused the sea to go back by a strong east wind all the night" (Exodus 14:21) for the children of Israel to pass; the "rough blast in the day of the east wind" (Isaiah 27:8). The strength of the wind makes it dangerous for ships at sea: "With the east wind thou breakest the ships of Tarshish" (Psalms 48:7). Euraquilo or Euroclydon (Acts 27:14 the King James Version), which caused Paul's shipwreck, was an East-Northeast wind, which was especially dangerous in that region.
6. Practical Use: The wind is directly of great use to the farmer in Palestine in winnowing the grain after it is threshed by treading out (Psalms 1:4; 35:5; Isaiah 17:13). It was used as a sign of the weather (Ecclesiastes 11:4). It was a necessity for traveling on the sea in ancient times (Acts 28:13; James 3:4), but too strong a wind caused shipwreck (Jonah 1:4; Matthew 8:24; Luke 8:23).
7. Scripture References: The Scriptural references to wind show many illustrative and figurative uses: (1) Power of God (1 Kings 19:11; Job 27:21; 38:24; Psalms 107:25; 135:7; 147:18; 148:8; Proverbs 30:4; Jeremiah 10:13; Hosea 4:19; Luke 8:25): "He caused the east wind to blow in the heavens; and by his power he guided the south wind" (Psalms 78:26). (2) Scattering and destruction: "A stormy wind shall rend it" (Ezekiel 13:11; compare Ezekiel 5:2; 12:14; 17:21; Hosea 4:19; 8:7; Jeremiah 49:36; Matthew 7:25). (3) Uncertainty: "tossed to and fro and carried about with every wind of doctrine" (Ephesians 4:14; compare Proverbs 27:16; Ecclesiastes 1:6; John 3:8; James 1:6). (4) Various directions: "toward the four winds of heaven" (Daniel 11:4; compare Daniel 8:8; Zechariah 2:6; Matthew 24:31; Mark 13:27). (5) Brevity: "a wind that passeth away" (Psalms 78:39; compare Psalms 1:4; 35:5; 103:16). (6) Nothingness: "Molten images are wind" (Isaiah 41:29; compare Jeremiah 5:13).
Alfred H. Joy
Window
Window - win'-do.
See HOUSE,II , 1, (9).
Windows of Heaven
Windows of Heaven - See ASTRONOMY, sec. III, 4.
Wine; Wine Press
Wine; Wine Press - win, win'-pres:
I. Terms. 1. Wine: (1) (~yayin), apparently from a non-Tsere root allied to Greek oinos, Latin vinum, etc. This is the usual word for "wine" and is found 141 times in Massoretic Text. (2) chemer, perhaps "foaming" (Deuteronomy 32:14 and Massoretic Text Isaiah 27:2 (but see the English Revised Version margin)); Aramaic chamar (Ezra 6:9; 7:22; Daniel 5:1-2, 4, 23). (3) tirosh. Properly this is the fresh grape juice (called also mishreh, Numbers 6:3), even when still in the grape (Isaiah 65:8). But unfermented grape juice is a very difficult thing to keep without the aid of modern antiseptic precautions, and its preservation in the warm and not over-cleanly conditions of ancient Palestine was impossible. Consequently, tirosh came to mean wine that was not fully aged (although with full intoxicating properties (Judges 9:13; Hosea 4:11; compare Acts 11:13)) or wine when considered specifically as the product of grapes (Deuteronomy 12:17; 18:4, etc.). The Septuagint always (except Isaiah 65:8; Hosea 4:11) translates by oinos and the Targums by chamar. the King James Version has "wine" 26 times, "new wine" 11 times, "sweet wine" in Micah 6:15; the Revised Version (British and American) "vintage" in Numbers 18:12; Micah 6:15 (with the same change in Nehemiah 10:37, 39 the Revised Version margin; Isaiah 62:8 the English Revised Version margin). Otherwise the English Revised Version has left the King James Version unchanged, while the American Standard Revised Version uses "new wine" throughout. (4) Two apparently poetic words are `acic (the Revised Version (British and American) "sweet wine," Isaiah 49:26; Amos 9:13; Joel 1:5; 3:18, "juice"; Song of Solomon 8:2), and cobhe' ("wine," Isaiah 1:22; "drink," Hosea 4:18 (margin "carouse"); Nahum 1:10). (5) For spiced wine three words occur: mecekh, Psalms 75:8 (English Versions of the Bible "mixture"); mimcakh, Proverbs 23:30 ("mixed wine"); Isaiah 65:11 (the Revised Version (British and American) "mingled wine"); mezegh, Song of Solomon 7:2 (the Revised Version (British and American) "mingled wine"); compare also yayin hareqach, Song of Solomon 8:2 ("spiced wine"). (6) mamethaqqim, literally, "sweet," Nehemiah 8:10.
(7) shekhar (22 times), translated "strong drink" in English Versions of the Bible. Shekhar appears to mean "intoxicating drink" of any sort and in Numbers 28:7 is certainly simply "wine" (compare also its use in parallelism to "wine" in Isaiah 5:11, 22, etc.). In certain passages (Leviticus 10:9; Numbers 6:3; 1 Samuel 1:15, etc.), however, it is distinguished from "wine," and the meaning is not quite certain. But it would seem to mean "drink not made from grapes." Of such only pomegranate wine is named in the Bible (Song of Solomon 8:2), but a variety of such preparations (made from apples, quinces, dates, barley, etc.) were known to the ancients and must have been used in Palestine also. The translation "strong drink" is unfortunate, for it suggests "distilled liquor," "brandy," which is hardly in point.
See DRINK, STRONG.
(8) In the Apocrypha and New Testament "wine" represents oinos, with certain compounds, except in Acts 2:13, where the Greek is gleukos, "sweet," English Versions of the Bible "new wine."
See also BLOOD; DRINK; FLAGON; FRUIT; HONEY.
2. Wine Press: (1) Properly speaking, the actual wine press was called gath (Judges 6:11, etc.), and the receiving vat ("fat") yeqebh (Numbers 18:27, etc.), but the names were interchangeable to some degree (Isaiah 16:10; Job 24:11; compare Isaiah 5:2, the Revised Version (British and American) text and margin) and either could be used for the whole apparatus (see GATH and compare Judges 7:25; Zechariah 14:10). In Isaiah 63:3 the Hebrew has purah, "wine trough" a word found also in Haggai 2:16 where it seems to be a gloss (so, apparently, the American Standard Revised Version).
(2) In the Apocrypha (Sirach 33:16) and in the New Testament 21:33; Revelation 14:19-20 (twice); Revelation 19:15) "winepress" is lenos; in Mark 12:1 hupolenion, by which only the receiving vat seems to be meant (the Revised Version (British and American) a pit for a winepress").
II. Wine-Making. 1. The Vintage: For the care of the vine, its distribution, different varieties, etc., see VINE. The ripening of the grapes took place as early as June in the Jordan valley, but on the coast not until August, while in the hills it was delayed until September. In whatever month, however, the coming of the vintage was the signal for the villagers to leave their homes in a body and to encamp in booths erected in the vineyards, so that the work might be carried on without interruption. See TABERNACLES,FEAST OF . It was the great holiday season of the year and the joy of the vintage was proverbial (Isaiah 16:10; Jeremiah 25:30; 48:33; compare Judges 9:27), and fragments of vintage songs seem to be preserved in Isaiah 27:2; 65:8. The grapes were gathered usually by cutting off the clusters (see SICKLE), and were carried to the press in baskets.
2. Wine Presses: Many of the ancient wine presses remain to the present day. Ordinarily they consisted of two rectangular or circular excavations, hewn (Isaiah 5:2) in the solid rock to a depth of 2 or 3 feet. Where possible one was always higher than the other and they were connected by a pipe or channel. Their size, of course, varied greatly, but the upper vat was always wider and shallower than the lower and was the press proper, into which the grapes were thrown, to be crushed by the feet of the treaders (Isaiah 63:1-3, etc.). The juice flowed down through the pipe into the lower vat, from which it was removed into jars (Haggai 2:16) or where it was allowed to remain during the first fermentation.
Many modifications of this form of the press are found. Where there was no rock close to the surface, the vats were dug in the earth and lined with stonework or cement, covered with pitch. Or the pressvat might be built up out of any material (wood was much used in Egypt), and from it the juice could be conducted into a sunken receptacle or into jars. Not infrequently a third (rarely a fourth) vat might be added between the other two, in which a partial settling and straining could take place. Wooden beams are often used either to finish the pressing or to perform the whole operation, and holes into which the ends of these beams fitted can still be seen. A square of wood attached to the beam bore down on the pile of grapes, while the free end of the beam was heavily weighted. In the simpler presses the final result was obtained by piling stones on the mass that remained after the treaders had finished their work.
3. Grading: It is a general principle of wine-making (compare that "the less the pressure the better the product"; therefore the liquid that flowed at the beginning of the process, especially that produced by the mere weight of the grapes themselves when piled in heaps, was carefully kept separate from that which was obtained only under heavy pressure. A still lower grade was made by adding water to the final refuse the mixture to ferment. Possibly this last concoction is sometimes meant by the word "vinegar" (chomets).
4. Fermentation: In the climate of Palestine fermentation begins almost immediately, frequently on the same day for juice pressed out in the morning, but never later than the next day. At first a slight foam appears on the surface of the liquid, and from that moment, according to Jewish tradition, it is liable to the wine-tithe (Ma`aseroth 1 7). The action rapidly becomes more violent, and while it is in progress the liquid must be kept in jars or in a vat, for it would burst even the newest and strongest of wine-skins (Job 32:19). Within about a week this violent fermentation subsides, and the wine is transferred to other jars or strong wine-skins (Mark 2:22 and parallel's), in which it undergoes the secondary fermentation. At the bottom of the receptacles collects the heavier matter or "lees" (shemarim, Psalms 75:8 ("dregs"); Jeremiah 48:11; Zephaniah 1:12 in Isaiah 25:6 the word is used for the wine as well), from which the "wines on the lees" gather strength and flavor.
At the end of 40 days it was regarded as properly "wine" and could be offered as a drink offering (`Edhuyyoth 6 1). The practice after this point seems to have varied, no doubt depending on the sort of wine that was being made. Certain kinds were left undisturbed to age "on their lees" and were thought to be all the better for so doing, but before they were used it was necessary to strain them very carefully. So Isaiah 25:6, `A feast of wine aged on the lees, thoroughly strained.' But usually leaving the wine in the fermentation vessels interfered with its improvement or caused it to degenerate. So at the end of 40 days it was drawn off into other jars (for storage, 1 Chronicles 27:27, etc.) or wine-skins (for transportation, Joshua 9:4, etc.). So Jeremiah 48:11: `Moab has been undisturbed from his youth, and he has rested on his lees and has not been emptied from vessel to vessel. .... Therefore his flavor remains unchanged (or "becomes insipid") and his scent is unimproved (or "lacks freshness")'; compare Zephaniah 1:12.
5. Storage: Jars were tightly sealed with caps covered with pitch. The very close sealing needed to preserve sparkling wines, however, was unknown to the Hebrews, and in consequence (and for other reasons) such wines were not used. Hence, in Psalms 75:8, "The wine foameth," the allusion must be to very new wine whose fermentation had not yet subsided, if indeed, the translation is not wrong (the Revised Version margin "The wine is red"). The superiority of old wine to new was acknowledged by the Hebrews, in common with the rest of the world (Sirach 9:10; Luke 5:39), but in the wines of Palestine acetous fermentation, changing the wine into vinegar, was likely to occur at any time. Three years was about the longest time for which such wines could be kept, and "old wine" meant only wines that had been, stored for a year or more (Bab. Bath. 6 3).
See also CRAFTS,II , 19.
III. Use of Wine. 1. Mixed Wine: In Old Testament times wine was drunk undiluted, and wine mixed with water was thought to be ruined (Isaiah 1:22). The "mixed" or "mingled wines" (see I, 1, (5), above) were prepared with aromatic herbs of various sorts and some of these compounds, used throughout the ancient world, were highly intoxicating (Isaiah 5:22). Wine mixed with myrrh was stupefying and an anesthetic (Mark 15:23). At a later period, however, the Greek use of diluted wines had attained such sway that the writer of 2 Maccabees speaks (15:39) of undiluted wine as "distasteful" (polemion). This dilution is so normal in the following centuries that the Mishna can take it for granted and, indeed, R. Eliezer even forbade saying the table-blessing over undiluted wine (Berakhoth 7 5). The proportion of water was large, only one-third or one-fourth of the total mixture being wine (Niddah 2 7; Pesachim 108b).
NOTE.
The wine of the Last Supper, accordingly, may be described in modern terms as a sweet, red, fermented wine, rather highly diluted. As it was no doubt the ordinary wine of commerce, there is no reason to suppose that it was particularly "pure."
2. Wine-Drinkinig: Throughout the Old Testament, wine is regarded as a necessity of life and in no way as a mere luxury. It was a necessary part of even the simplest meal (Genesis 14:18; Judges 19:19; 1 Samuel 16:20; Isaiah 55:1, etc.), was an indispensable provision for a fortress (2 Chronicles 11:11), and was drunk by all classes and all ages, even by the very young (Lamentations 2:12; Zechariah 9:17). "Wine" is bracketed with "grain" as a basic staple (Genesis 27:28, etc.), and the failure of the winecrop or its destruction by foreigners was a terrible calamity (Deuteronomy 28:30, 39; Isaiah 62:8; 65:21; Micah 6:15; Zephaniah 1:13, etc.). On the other hand, abundance of wine was a special token of God's blessing (Genesis 27:28; Deuteronomy 7:13; Amos 9:14, etc.), and extraordinary abundance would be a token of the Messianic age (Amos 9:13; Joel 3:18; Zechariah 9:17). A moderate "gladdening of the heart" through wine was not looked upon as at all reprehensible (2 Samuel 13:28; Esther 1:10; Psalms 104:15; Ecclesiastes 9:7; 10:19; Zechariah 9:15; 10:7), and while Judges 9:13 represented a mere verbal remnant of a long-obsolete concept, yet the idea contained in the verse was not thought shocking. "Drink offerings," indeed, were of course a part of the prescribed ritual (Leviticus 23:13, etc.; see SACRIFICE), and a store of wine was kept in the temple (tabernacle) to insure their performance (1 Chronicles 9:29). Even in later and much more moderate times, Sirach writes the laudation of wine in 31:27, and the writer of 2 Maccabees (see above) objects as strongly to pure water as he does to pure wine. Christ adapted Himself to Jewish customs (Matthew 11:19 parallel Luke 7:34; 22:18), and exegetes usually suppose that the celebrated verse 1 Timothy 5:23 is meant as a safeguard against ascetic (Gnostic?) dualism, as well as to give medical advice.
On the temporal conditioning of the Biblical customs, the uncompromising opposition of the Bible to excess, and the non-applicability of the ancient attitude to the totally different modern conditions, see DRUNKENNESS.
The figurative uses of wine are very numerous, but are for the most part fairly obvious. Those offering difficulty have been discussed in the course of the article. For wine in its commercial aspect see TRADE.
Burton Scott Easton
Winebibber
Winebibber - win'-bib-er: In Proverbs 23:20, cobhe yauin; in Matthew 11:19 = Luke 7:34, oinopotes, of habitual wine-drinkers. The accusation was falsely brought against Jesus of being "a gluttonous man and a winebibber," because, unlike John, He ate and drank with others.
Winefat; Wine Press; Winevat
Winefat; Wine Press; Winevat - win'-fat, win'-pres, win'-vat.
See CRAFTS,II , 19; VINE; WINE.
Wine-skins
Wine-skins - (chemeth (Genesis 21:14 margin), n'odh (Judges 4:19 "'bottle") nebhel, nebhel (1 Samuel 10:3 margin), ('obh) (Job 32:19); askos (Matthew 9:17; Mark 2:22; Luke 5:37; compare askoputine, Judith 10:5, the Revised Version (British and American) "leathern bottle")): These words are all used to designate skins for the containing of liquids, nebhel, however, being the most common in the case of wine. The Israelite, like the modern Arabic and Syrian, used mainly the skin of the goat and the sheep, but the skins of the ox and the camel have also been put to this purpose. The skin is removed from the animal by drawing it over the body from the neck downward, half the skin on each of the limbs being also retained. It is then tanned, the hair cut close, turned inside out, and has all the openings save one closed with cords, when it is ready for use. The reference to "a wineskin in the smoke" in Psalms 119:83 is generally explained on the supposition of its being hung there for mellowing purposes, but this can scarcely be accepted, for wine is never left for any length of time in the skin on account of its imparting a disagreeable flavor to the contents. The explanation of the New Testament passages is that the new wine, still liable to continue fermenting to a small extent at least, was put into new, still expansible skins, a condition that had ceased in the older ones.
See WINE.
W. M. Christie
Winevat
Winevat - See WINEFAT, WINEVAT.
Wings
Wings - wingz (kanaph; pterux): Biblical references to the wings of birds are common, especially in Psalms, many of them exquisitely poetical. Often the wings of an eagle are mentioned because they are from 7 to 9 feet in sweep, of untiring flight, and have strength to carry heavy burdens: so they became the symbol of strength and endurance. Ancient monuments and obelisks are covered with the heads of bulls, lions, different animals, and men even, to which the wings of an eagle were added to symbolize strength. Sometimes the wings of a stork are used to portray strong flight, as in the vision of Zechariah: "Then lifted I up mine eyes, and saw, and, behold, there came forth two women, and the wind was in their wings; now they had wings like the wings of a stork; and they lifted up the ephah between earth and heaven" (5:9). The wings of a dove symbolized love. Wings in the abstract typified shelter, strength or speed, as a rule, while in some instances their use was ingenious and extremely poetical, as when Job records that the Almighty used wings to indicate migration: "And stretcheth her wings toward the south" (39:26). In Psalms 17:8 there is a wonderful poetical imagery in the plea, "Hide me under the shadow of thy wings." In Psalms 18:10 there is a reference to "the wings of the wind." And in Psalms 55:6 the Psalmist cries, "Oh that I had wings like a dove!" The brightness and peace of prosperous times are beautifully described in Psalms 68:13, the wings of a dove covered with silver, and her pinions with pale green gold.' The first rays of dawn are compared to "the wings of the morning" (Psalms 139:9). Solomon was thinking of the swiftness of wings when he said, "For riches' certainly make themselves wings, like an eagle that flieth toward heaven" (Proverbs 23:5). So also was Isaiah in 40:31, "They that wait for Yahweh shall renew their strength; they shall mount up with wings as eagles; they shall run, and not be weary; they shall walk, and not faint." In Malachi 4:2 the King James Version, there is a beautiful reference, "But unto you that fear my name shall the Sun of righteousness arise with healing in his wings." the Revised Version (British and American) changes "his" to "its." Wings as an emblem of love were used by Jesus in the cry, "O Jerusalem .... how often would I have gathered thy children .... as a hen gathereth her chickens under her wings" (Matthew 23:37).
Gene Stratton-Porter
Wink
Wink - wink (razam, literally, "to roll the eyes"): The act or habit of winking was evidently considered to be evil both in its motives and in its results. The idea of its facetiousness, prevalent in our day, is nowhere apparent in the Scriptures. It is mentioned frequently, but is always associated with sin, in the Old Testament especially in the sense of conceit, pride, and rebellion against God: "Why doth thine heart carry thee away? and what do thy eyes wink at, that thou turnest thy spirit against God" (Job 15:12-13 the King James Version). So also Psalms 35:19: "Neither let them wink with the eye that hate roe without a cause." "A naughty person, a wicked man, walketh with froward mouth. He winketh with his eyes," etc. (Proverbs 6:12-13 the King James Version). "He that winketh with the eye causeth sorrow" (Proverbs 10:10). See Watkinson, Education of the Heart, "Ethics of Gesture," 194 ff.
In the New Testament the word is used to express the longsuffering patience and forgiveness of God toward erring Israel: "And the times of this ignorance God winked at" (Acts 17:30 the King James Version, hupereidon, "overlooked," and so translated in the Revised Version (British and American); compare Wisdom of Solomon 11:23; Ecclesiasticus 30:11). The use of "winked" in this connection would in our day, of course, be considered in bad taste, if not actually irreverent, but it is an excellent example of the colloquialism of the King James Version.
Arthur Walwyn Evans
Winnowing
Winnowing - win'-o-ing.
See AGRICULTURE; FAN; THRESHING.
Winter
Winter - win'-ter (choreph, from charaph, "to inundate," "overflow"): The rainy season, also the autumn harvest season (Genesis 8:22; Psalms 74:17; Zechariah 14:8). It is also the time of cold (Jeremiah 36:22; Amos 3:15). The verb "to winter" occurs in Isaiah 18:6. Cethaw has the same meaning as Choreph (Song of Solomon 2:11). cheimon, corresponds to choreph as the rainy season, and the verb paracheimazo, signifies "to pass the winter" (Acts 27:12), the noun from which is paracheimasia (same place).
See SEASONS.