International Standard Bible Encyclopedia
Fire, Unquenchable — Fortunatus
Fire, Unquenchable
Fire, Unquenchable - See UNQUENCHABLE FIRE.
Firebrand
Firebrand - fir'-brand ('udh, used for a burning stick taken out of the fire): In Judges 15:4-5 describing the "brands" (margin "torches") which Samson tied to the foxes' tails, the word is lappidh ("lamp"; see Judges 7:16, 20 the Revised Version (British and American), "torches"). Other words are ziqqim, "sparks," "flames" (fiery darts; Proverbs 26:18), and ziqoth (Isaiah 50:11); 'udh is used figuratively of angry men (Isaiah 7:4), and of those mercifully rescued from destruction (Amos 4:11; Zechariah 3:2; the Revised Version (British and American) "brand"). the Revised Version (British and American) gives "firebrand" as translation of moqedh (the King James Version "hearth") in Psalms 102:3, "My bones are burned as a firebrand" (margin "as a hearth").
See BRAND.
W. L. Walker
Firepan
Firepan - fir'-pan (machtah, "firepan," "censer," "snuffdish," from chathah, "to snatch up"): A vessel for carrying coals. Brazen firepans were part of the furnishings of the altar of burnt offerings (Exodus 27:3; 38:3, and in Numbers 4:14, where the King James Version wrongly reads "censers," the context indicating a vessel belonging to the brazen altar).
The same word is translated "snuffdishes" in Exodus 25:38; 37:23; Numbers 4:9, where it refers to golden firepans which belonged to the golden candlestick or lamp stand, and were used to receive the burnt ends of the wicks. In 1 Kings 7:50 and 2 Chronicles 4:22, although the King James Version reads "censers," the context points to the firepans belonging to the candlestick; as also in 2 Kings 25:15 and Jeremiah 52:19, translated "firepans" in the King James Version and the Revised Version (British and American). A similar firepan designated by the same Hebrew word but translated "censer" was used to carry the burning coals upon which the incense was thrown and burned (Leviticus 10:1; 16:12; Numbers 16:6, 17 ff).
See CENSER.
The firepan or censer of the Hebrews was doubtless similar to the censer of the Egyptians, pictures of which have been found. It consisted of a pan or pot for the coals, which was held by a straight or slightly curved long handle. The style of censer used in recent centuries, swung by three chains, came into use about the 12th century AD.
George Rice Hovey
Fires
Fires - firz: In Isaiah 24:15 the King James Version translates 'urim ("lights," especially Urim in the phrase "Urim and Thummim") "fires." The Revised Version (British and American), understanding the word to mean the region of light, translates "east," which satisfies the context far better, and is adopted by many modern scholars. In Ezekiel 39:9-10 the Revised Version (British and American) has "fires"; in Ezekiel 39:9 "make fires" is a translation of a verb of different root; in Ezekiel 39:10 "fires" translates the common singular noun for fire.
Firkin
Firkin - fur'-kin (metretes): The liquid measure used in John 2:6 to indicate the capacity of the water-pots mentioned in the narrative of the miracle of turning the water into wine. It is regarded as equivalent to the Hebrew bath, and thus contained about nine gallons.
See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
Firmament
Firmament - fur'-ma-ment.
See ASTRONOMY. III, 3.
First
First - furst ('echadh, ri'shon; proton, to proton, protos): Of these words, which are those most frequently used for "first," ri'shon is from rosh, "the head, and is used for the highest, chief, etc.; also of time, the beginning, e.g. Genesis 8:13, in the first month"; in Isaiah 44:6; 48:12, it is used of Yahweh as Eternal and solely Supreme--the First and the Last (compare Isaiah 41:4). Special usages are in connection with "firstborn," "first-fruit," etc.; proton is used of that which is first in order; but also of that which is first or chief in importance, etc. (Matthew 6:33; James 3:17). In 1 Timothy 1:15, Paul says Jesus came "to save sinners; of whom I am chief," literally, "first"; the same word is used by Jesus of the "first" of the commandments (Mark 12:29); where we read in 1 Corinthians 15:3, "I delivered unto you first of all," it is en protois ("in the foremost place"); "The first and the last" is applied to Christ as Eternal and Supreme (Revelation 1:17; 2:8; 22:13); protos is "the first day" (Matthew 26:17; Mark 16:9); in Matthew 28:1; Mark 16:2; Luke 24:1; John 20:1, 19; Acts 20:7, it is mia ("one").
W. L. Walker
First-begotten
First-begotten - furst-be-got'-'-n (prototokos): This Greek word is translated in two passages in the King James Version by "first-begotten" (Hebrews 1:6; Revelation 1:5), but in all other places in the King James Version, and always in the Revised Version (British and American), by "firstborn." It is used in its natural literal sense of Jesus Christ as Mary's firstborn (Luke 2:7; Matthew 1:25 the King James Version); it also bears the literal sense of Jesus Christ as Mary's firstborn (Luke 2:7; Matthew 1:25 the King James Version); it also bears the literal sense of the firstborn of the firstborn of men and animals (Hebrews 11:28). It is not used in the New Testament or Septuagint of an only child, which is expressed by monogenes (see below).
Metaphorically, it is used of Jesus Christ to express at once His relation to man and the universe and His difference from them, as both He and they are related to God. The laws and customs of all nations show that to be "firstborn" means, not only priority in time, but a certain superiority in privilege and authority. Israel is Yahweh's firstborn among the nations (Exodus 4:22; compare Jeremiah 31:9). The Messianic King is God's firstborn Septuagint prototokos), "the highest of the kings of the earth" (Psalms 89:27). Philo applies the word to the Logos as the archetypal and governing idea of creation. Similarly Christ, as "the firstborn of all creation" (Colossians 1:15), is not only prior to it in time, but above it in power and authority. "All things have been created through him, and unto him" (Colossians 1:16). He is "sovereign Lord over all creation by virtue of primo-geniture" (Lightfoot). It denotes His status and character and not His origin; the context does not admit the idea that He is a part of the created universe. So in His incarnation He is brought into the world as "firstborn," and God summons all His angels to worship Him (Hebrews 1:6). In His resurrection He is "firstborn from the dead" (Colossians 1:18) or "of the dead" (Revelation 1:5), the origin and prince of life. And finally He is "firstborn among many brethren" in the consummation of God's purpose of grace, when all the elect are gathered home. Not only is He their Lord, but also their pattern, God's ideal Son and men are "foreordained to be conformed to (his) image" (Romans 8:29). Therefore the saints themselves, as growing in His likeness, and as possessing all the privileges of eldest sons, including the kingdom and the priesthood, may be called the "church of the firstborn who are enrolled in heaven" (Hebrews 12:23).
See also BEGOTTEN, and Lightfoot on Colossians 1:15.
T. Rees
Firstborn; Firstling
Firstborn; Firstling - furst'-born, furst'-ling (bekhor; prototokos): The Hebrew word denotes the firstborn of human beings as well as of animals (Exodus 11:5), while a word from the same root denotes first-fruits (Exodus 23:16). All the data point to the conclusion that among the ancestors of the Hebrews the sacrifice of the firstborn was practiced, just as the firstlings of the flocks and the first-fruits of the produce of the earth were devoted to the deity. The narrative of the Moabite war records the sacrifice of the heir to the throne by Mesha, to Chemosh, the national god (2 Kings 3:27). The barbarous custom must have become extinct at an early period in the religion of Israel (Genesis 22:12). It was probably due to the influence of surrounding nations that the cruel practice was revived toward the close of the monarchical period (2 Kings 16:3; 17:17; 21:6; Jeremiah 7:31; Ezekiel 16:20; 23:37; Micah 6:7). Jeremiah denies that the offering of human beings could have been an instruction from Yahweh (7:31; 19:5). The prophetic conception of God had rendered such a doctrine inconceivable. Clear evidence of the spiritualization and humanizati0n of religion among the Israelites is furnished in the replacement, at an early stage, of the actual sacrifice of the firstborn by their dedication to the service of Yahweh. At a later stage the Levites were substituted for the firstborn. Just as the firstlings of unclean animals were redeemed with money (Exodus 13:13; 34:20), for the dedication of the firstborn was substituted the consecration of the Levites to the service of the sanctuary (Numbers 3:11-13, 15). On the 30th day after birth the firstborn was brought to the priest by the father, who paid five shekels for the child's redemption from service in the temple (compare Luke 2:27; Mishna Bekhoroth viii.8). For that service the Levites were accepted in place of the redeemed firstborn (Numbers 3:45). See note. According to Exodus 22:29-31 the firstborn were to be given to Yahweh. (The firstborn of clean animals, if free from spot or blemish, were to be sacrificed after eight days, Numbers 18:16 ff.) This allusion to the sacrifice of the firstborn as part of the religion of Yahweh has been variously explained. Some scholars suspect the text, but in all probability the verse means no more than similar references to the fact that the firstborn belonged to Yahweh (Exodus 13:2; 34:19). The modifying clause, with regard to the redemption of the firstborn, has been omitted. The firstborn possessed definite privileges which were denied to other members of the family. The Law forbade the disinheriting of the firstborn (Deuteronomy 21:15-17). Such legislation, in polygamous times, was necessary to prevent a favorite wife from exercising undue influence over her husband in distributing his property, as in the case of Jacob (Genesis 25:23). The oldest son's share was twice as large as that of any other son. When Elisha prayed for a double portion of Elijah's spirit, he simply wished to be considered the firstborn, i.e. the successor, of the dying prophet. Israel was Yahweh's firstborn (Exodus 4:22; compare Jeremiah 31:9 (Ephraim)). Israel, as compared with other nations, was entitled to special privileges. She occupied a unique position in virtue of the special relationship between Yahweh and the nation. In three passages (Romans 8:29; Colossians 1:15; Hebrews 1:6), Jesus Christ is the firstborn--among many brethren (Romans 8:29); of every creature (Colossians 1:16). This application of the term to Jesus Christ may be traced back to Psalms 89:27 where the Davidic ruler, or perhaps the nation, is alluded to as the firstborn of Yahweh.
See CHILD; CIRCUMCISION; FIRST-BEGOTTEN; PLAGUES OF EGYPT.
NOTE--The custom of redeeming the firstborn son is preserved among the Jews to this day. After thirty days the father invites the "Kohen," i.e. a supposed descendant of Aaron, to the house. The child is brought and shown to the "Kohen," and the father declares the mother of the child to be an Israelite. If she is a "Kohen," redemption is not necessary. The "Kohen" asks the father which he prefers, his child or the five shekels; the father answers that he prefers his son, and pays to the "Kohen" a sum equivalent to five shekels. After receiving the redemption-money, the "Kohen" puts his hands on the child's head and pronounces the Aaronite blessing (Numbers 6:22-27).
T. Lewis
First-fruits
First-fruits - furst'-froots (re'shith, bikkurim; aparche. Septuagint translates re'shith by aparche, but for bikkurim it uses the word protogennemata; compare Philo 22 33): In acknowledgment of the fact that the land and all its products were the gift of Yahweh to Israel, and in thankfulness for His bounty, all the first-fruits were offered to Him. These were offered in their natural state (e.g. cereals, tree fruits, grapes), or after preparation (e.g. musk, oil, flour, dough), after which the Israelite was at liberty to use the rest (Exodus 23:19; Numbers 15:20; 18:12; Deuteronomy 26:2; Nehemiah 10:35, 37). No absolute distinction can be made between re'shith and bikkurim, but re'shith seems generally to mean what is prepared by human labor, and bikkurim the direct product of Nature. The phrase "the first of the first-fruits" (Exodus 23:19; 34:26; Ezekiel 44:30), Hebrew re'shith bikkure, Greek aparchai ton protogennematon, is not quite clear. It may mean the first-ripe or the choicest of the first-fruits. The re'shith offerings were individual, except that a re'shith of dough was to be offered as a heave offering (Numbers 15:17-21). The priest waved a re'shith of corn before the Lord on the morrow after the Sabbath in the week of unleavened bread (Leviticus 23:9-11). These offerings all fell to the priest (Numbers 18:12). Bikkurim refers specially to things sown (Exodus 23:16; Leviticus 2:14). At the Feast of Weeks, seven weeks after the offering of the sheaf, bikkurim of corn in the ear, parched with fire and bruised, were brought to the House of the Lord as a meal offering (Exodus 34:22-26; Leviticus 2:14-16). The bikkurim also fell to the priest, except a portion which was burned as a memorial (Leviticus 2:8-10, 16). The beautiful ceremony of the offering of the re'shith in the House of God is described in Deuteronomy 26:1-11, and is enlarged upon in the Talmud (Bikkurim 3 2). According to the Talmud (Terumoth 4 3) a sixtieth part of the first-fruits in a prepared form was the minimum that could be offered; the more generous brought a fortieth part, and even a thirtieth. The fruits of newly planted trees were not to be gathered during the first three years; the fruits of the fourth year were consecrated to Yahweh, and from the fifth year the fruits belonged to the owner of the trees (Leviticus 19:23-25). According to Mishna, `Orlah i.10, even the shells of nuts and pomegranates could not be used during the first three years as coloring matter or for the lighting of fires. It is held by some scholars that the institution of the tithe (see TITHE) is a later development from the first-fruits.
Figurative: In the Old Testament, in Jeremiah 2:3, Israel is called "the re'shith of his increase." In the New Testament aparche is applied figuratively to the first convert or converts in a particular place (Romans 16:5; 1 Corinthians 16:15); to the Christians of that age (James 1:18; 2 Thessalonians 2:13, WHm), and to the 144,000 in heaven (Revelation 14:4); to Christ, as the first who rose from the dead (1 Corinthians 15:20, 23); also to the blessings which we receive now through the Spirit, the earnest of greater blessings to come (Romans 8:23).
Paul Levertoff
Firstling
Firstling - See FIRSTBORN.
Fish
Fish - (dagh, daghah, da'gh; ichthus, ichthudion, opsarion):
1. Natural History: Fishes abound in the inland waters of Palestine as well as the Mediterranean. They are often mentioned or indirectly referred to both in the Old Testament and in the New Testament, but it is remarkable that no particular kind is distinguished by name. In Leviticus 11:9-12 and Deuteronomy 14:9 f, "whatsoever hath fins and scales in the waters" is declared clean, while all that "have not fins and scales" are forbidden. This excluded not only reptiles and amphibians, but also, among fishes, siluroids and eels, sharks, rays and lampreys. For our knowledge of the inland fishes of Palestine we are mainly indebted to Tristram, NHB and Fauna and Flora of Palestine; Lortet, Poissons et reptiles du Lac de Tiberiade; and Russegger, Reisen in Europa, Asien, Afrika, 1835-1841. The most remarkable feature of the fish fauna of the Jordan valley is its relationship to that of the Nile and of East Central Africa. Two Nile fishes, Chromis nilotica Hasselquist, and Clarias macracanthus Gunth., are found in the Jordan valley, and a number of other species found only in the Jordan valley belong to genera (Chromis and Hemichromis) which are otherwise exclusively African. This seems to indicate that at some time, probably in the early Tertiary, there was some connection between the Palestinian and African river systems. No fish can live in the Dead Sea, and many perish through being carried down by the swift currents of the Jordan and other streams. There are, however, several kinds of small fish which live in salt springs on the borders of the Dead Sea, springs which are as salt as the Dead Sea but which, according to Lortet, lack the magnesium chloride which is a constituent of the Dead Sea water and is fatal to the fish. Capoeta damascina Cuv. and Val., one of the commonest fishes of Syria and Palestine, has been taken by the writer in large numbers in the Arnon and other streams flowing into
the Dead Sea. This is surprising in view of the fact that the Dead Sea seems to form an effective barrier between the fishes of the different streams flowing into it. The indiscriminate mention of fishes without reference to the different kinds is well illustrated by the numerous passages in which "the fishes of the sea, the birds of the heavens, and the beasts of the field," or some equivalent expression, is used to denote all living creatures, e.g. Genesis 1:26; 9:2; Numbers 11:22; Deuteronomy 4:18; 1 Kings 4:33; Job 12:8; Psalms 8:8; Ezekiel 38:20; Hosea 4:3; Zephaniah 1:3; 1 Corinthians 15:39.
2. Jonah's Fish: An unusually large shark might fulfill the conditions of Jonah's fish (dagh, daghah; but Matthew 12:40, ketos, "whale" or "sea monster"). The whale that is found in the Mediterranean (Balaena australis) has a narrow throat and could not swallow a man. No natural explanation is possible of Jonah's remaining alive and conscious for three days in the creature's belly. Those who consider the book historical must regard the whole event as miraculous. For those who consider it to be a story with a purpose, no explanation is required.
3. Fishing: The present inhabitants of Moab and Edom make no use of the fish that swarm in the Arnon, the Hisa and other streams, but fishing is an important industry in Galilee and Western Palestine. Now, as formerly, spear hooks and nets are employed. The fish-spear (Job 41:7) is little used. Most of the Old Testament references to nets have to do with the taking of birds and beasts and not of fishes, and, while in Habakkuk 1:15 cherem is rendered "net" and mikhmereth "drag," it is hot clear that these and the other words rendered "net" refer to particular kinds of nets. In the New Testament, however, sagene (Matthew 13:47), is clearly the dragnet, and amphiblestron (Matthew 4:18), is clearly the casting net. The word most often used is diktuon. Though this word is from dikein, "to throw," or "to cast," the context in several places (e.g. Luke 5:4; John 21:11) suggests that a dragnet is meant. The dragnet may be several hundred feet long. The upper edge is buoyed and the lower edge is weighted. It is let down from a boat in a line parallel to the shore and is then pulled in by ropes attached to the two ends, several men and boys usually pulling at each end. The use of the casting net requires much skill. It forms a circle of from 10 to 20 feet in diameter with numerous small leaden weights at the circumference. It is lifted by the center and carefully gathered over the right arm. When well thrown it goes to some distance, at the same time spreading out into a wide circle. A cord may be attached to the center, but this is not always the case. When lifted again by the center, the leads come together, dragging over the bottom, and sometimes a large number of fish may be enclosed. The novice has only to try, to realize the dexterity of the practiced fishermen.
Figurative: The fact that so many of our Lord's disciples were fishermen lends a profound interest to their profession. Christ tells Simon and Andrew (Matthew 4:19; Mark 1:17) that He will make them fishers of men. The Kingdom of Heaven (Matthew 13:47) is likened unto a net that was cast into the sea, and gathered of every kind; which, when it was filled, they drew up on the beach; and they sat down and gathered the good into vessels, but the bad they cast away. Tristram (NHB) says that he has seen the fishermen go through their net and throw out into the sea those that were too small for the market or were considered unclean. In Jeremiah 16:16, we read: "Behold, I will send for many fishers, saith Yahweh, and they shall fish them up; and afterward I will send for many hunters, and they shall hunt them from every mountain, and from every hill, and out of the clefts of the rocks." In the vision of Ezekiel (Ezekiel 47:9 f), the multitude of fish and the nets spread from En-gedi to En-eglaim are marks of the marvelous change wrought in the Dead Sea by the stream issuing from the temple. The same sign, i.e. of the spreading of nets (Ezekiel 26:5, 14), marks the desolation of Tyre. It is a piece of broiled fish that the risen Lord eats with the Eleven in Jerusalem (Luke 24:42), and by the Sea of Galilee (John 21:13) He gives the disciples bread and fish.
Alfred Ely Day
Fish Gate
Fish Gate - See JERUSALEM.
Fisher; Fisherman
Fisher; Fisherman - fish'-er fish'-er-man (dayyagh, dawwagh; halieus; Westcott and Hort, The New Testament in Greek haleeus): Although but few references to fishermen are made in the Bible, these men and their calling are brought into prominence by Jesus' call to certain Galilee fishermen to become His disciples (Matthew 4:18-19; Mark 1:16-17). Fishermen, then as now, formed a distinct class. The strenuousness of the work (Luke 5:2) ruled out the weak and indolent. They were crude in manner, rough in speech and in their treatment of others (Luke 9:49, 54; John 18:10). James and John before they became tempered by Jesus' influence were nicknamed the "sons of thunder" (Mark 3:17). The fishermen's exposure to all kinds of weather made them hardy and fearless. They were accustomed to bear with patience many trying circumstances. They often toiled for hours without success, and yet were always ready to try once more (Luke 5:5; John 21:3). Such men, when impelled by the same spirit as filled their Master, became indeed "fishers of men" (Matthew 4:19; Mark 1:17).
One of the striking instances of the fulfillment of prophecy is the use by the Syrian fishermen today of the site of ancient Tyre as a place for the spreading of their nets (Ezekiel 26:5, 14).
Figurative: Fish were largely used as food (Habakkuk 1:16), hence, the lamentation of the fishermen, who provided for all, typified general desolation (Isaiah 19:8). On the other hand, abundance of fish and many fishermen indicated general abundance (Ezekiel 47:10). Our modern expression, "treated like a dog," had its counterpart in the language of the Old Testament writers, when they portrayed the punished people of Judah as being treated like fish. Yahweh would send many fishers to fish them up and put sticks or hooks through their cheeks as a fisherman strings his fish (Jeremiah 16:16; Job 41:2). Such treatment of the people of Judah is depicted on some of the Assyrian monuments.
James A. Patch
Fisher's Coat
Fisher's Coat - kot: This expression is found in John 21:7 where the Revised Version (British and American) and the American Standard Revised Version have "coat." John here, after representing Peter as "naked" (gumnos), pictures him as girding on his "coat" (ependutes), literally, "upper garment," and not at all specifically a "fisher's coat."
See DRESS.
Fishhook
Fishhook - fish'-hook (cir dughah, chakkah): The word "fishhooks" occurs but twice in the American Standard Revised Version (Job 41:1; Amos 4:2). In other passages the word hook or "angle" is applied to this instrument for fishing (Isaiah 19:8; Job 41:2). The ancient Egyptian noblemen used to amuse themselves by fishing from their private fishpools with hook and line. The Egyptian monuments show that the hook was quite commonly used for catching fish. The hook is still used in Bible lands, although not as commonly as nets. It is called a cinnarat, probably from the same root as tsinnah, the plural of which is translated hooks in Amos 4:2. In Matthew 17:27, agkistron (literally, "fishhook"), is rendered "hook."
James A. Patch
Fishing
Fishing - fish'-ing (halieuo): Several methods of securing fish are resorted to at the present day along the seashores of Palestine. Two of these, dynamiting and poisoning with the juice of cyclamen bulbs or other poisonous plants, can be passed over as havi ng no bearing on ancient methods.
(1) With Hooks:
Some fishing is done with hooks and lines, either on poles when fishing from shore, or on trawls in deep-sea fishing. The fishhooks now used are of European origin, but bronze fishhooks of a very early date have been discovered. That fishing with hooks was known in Jesus' time is indicated by the Master's command to Peter (Matthew 17:27).
See FISHHOOK.
(2) With Spears:
Job 41:7 probably refers to an instrument much like the barbed spear still used along the Syrian coast. It is used at night by torchlight.
(3) With Nets:
In the most familiar Bible stories of fisherman life a net was used. Today most of the fishing is done in the same way. These nets are homemade. Frequently one sees the fishermen or members of their families making nets or repairing old ones during the stormy days when fishing is impossible.
Nets are used in three ways: (a) A circular net, with small meshes and leaded around the edge, is cast from the shore into the shallow water in such a manner that the leaded edge forms the base of a cone, the apex being formed by the fisherman holding the center of the net in his hand. The cone thus formed encloses such fish as cannot escape the quick throw of the fisher. (b) A long net or seine of one or two fathoms depth, leaded on one edge and provided with floats on the other, is payed out from boats in such a way as to surround a school of fish. Long ropes fastened to the two ends are carried ashore many yards apart, and from five to ten men on each rope gradually draw in the net. The fish are then landed from the shallow water with small nets or by hand. This method is commonly practiced on the shore of the Sea of Galilee. (c) In deeper waters a net similar to that described above, but four or five fathoms deep, is cast from boats and the ends slowly brought together so as to form a circle. Men then dive down and bring one portion of the weighted edge over under the rest, so as to form a bottom. The compass of the net is then narrowed, and the fish are emptied from the net into the boat. Sometimes the net with the fish enclosed is towed into shallow water before drawing. The above method is probably the one the disciples used (Matthew 4:18; Mark 1:16; Luke 5:2-10; John 21:3-11). Portions of nets with leads and floats, of early Egyptian origin, may be seen in the British Museum.
See NET.
The fishermen today usually work with their garments girdled up about their waists. Frequently they wear only a loose outer garment which is wet much of the time. This garment can be quickly removed by pulling it over the head, When occasion requires the fisherman to jump into the sea. If methods have not changed, Peter had probably just climbed back into the boat after adjusting the net for drawing when he learned that it was Jesus who stood on the shore. He was literally naked and pulled on his coat before he went ashore (John 21:7).
James A. Patch
Fishpools
Fishpools - fish'-pools: This is a mistranslation. The Hebrew berekhoth (Song of Solomon 7:4) simply means "pools" (Revised Version); "fish" is quite unwarrantably introduced in the King James Version. In Isaiah 19:10, again, instead of "all that make sluices and ponds for fish" (the King James Version), we should certainly read, with the Revised Version (British and American), "All they that work for hire shall be grieved in soul."
Fit, Fitly
Fit, Fitly - fit'-li: The word "fit" (adjective and verb) occurs a few times, representing nearly as many Hebrew and Greek words. the Revised Version (British and American) frequently alters, as in Leviticus 16:21 (`itti, "timely," "opportune," "ready"), where for "fit" it reads "in readiness," margin "appointed." In 1 Chronicles 7:11 the Revised Version (British and American) has "that were able"; in Isaiah 44:13, "shapeth"; in Proverbs 24:27, "ready," etc. "Fitly" in Proverbs 25:11 is in the Revised Version, margin "in due season"; in Song of Solomon 5:12, "fitly set" is in the Revised Version, margin "sitting by full streams." In the New Testament "fit" is the translation of euthetos, "well placed" (Luke 9:62; 14:35), of kathekon, "suitable" (Acts 22:22), and of katartizo, "to make quite ready" (Romans 9:22, "vessels of wrath fitted unto destruction").
W. L. Walker
Fitches
Fitches - fich'-iz (the English word "fitch" is the same as "vetch"):
(1) qetsach (Isaiah 28:25, 27; the Revised Version, margin has "black cummin" (Nigella sativa)). This is the "nutmeg flower," an annual herb (Natural Order, Ranunculaceae), the black seeds of which are sprinkled over some kinds of bread in Palestin. They were used as a condiment by the ancient Greeks and Romans. These seeds have a warm aromatic flavor and are carminative in their properties, assisting digestion. They, like all such plants which readily yield their seed, are still beaten out with rods. The contrast between the stouter staff for the "fitches" and the lighter rod for the cummin is all the more noticeable when the great similarity of the two seeds is noticed.
(2) kuccemim (pl.) (Ezekiel 4:9) the Revised Version (British and American) "spelt" (which see).
E. W. G. Masterman
Five
Five - fiv (chamesh; pente).
See NUMBER.
Flag
Flag - Two Hebrew words:
(1) cuph (Exodus 2:3, 1, "flags"; Isaiah 19:6, "flags"; Jonah 2:5, "weeds"). This is apparently a general name which includes both the fresh-water weeds growing along a river bank and "seaweeds." The Red Sea was known as Yam cuph.
(2) 'achu (Genesis 41:2, 18, the King James Version "meadow," the Revised Version (British and American) "reed-grass"; Job 8:11, "Can the rush grow up without mire? Can the flag (margin "reed-grass") grow without water?"). Some such general term as "sedges" or "fens" would better meet the requirements.
Flagon
Flagon - flag'-un: The translation of 'ashishah, in the King James Version in 2 Samuel 6:19; 1 Chronicles 16:3; Song of Solomon 2:5; Hosea 3:1. In all, these passages the Revised Version (British and American) reads "cake of raisins" or "raisins." It was probably a pressed raisin cake. the King James Version and the Revised Version (British and American) read "flagons," in Isaiah 22:24 as a rendering of nebhalim, which is elsewhere (1 Samuel 1:24; 10:3; 2 Samuel 16:1, etc.) rendered "bottles," the Revised Version, margin "skins." These were the bags or bottles made of the whole skin of a kid, goat or other animal. the Revised Version (British and American) has "flagons" in Exodus 25:29 and Exodus 37:16 as translation of qeshawoth, a golden jug or jar used in the tabernacle from which the drink offerings were poured out. The same word is translated "cups" in Numbers 4:7.
George Rice Hovey
Flake
Flake - flak (mappal, a word of uncertain meaning): It is used in the sense of "refuse (husks) of the wheat" in Amos 8:6. With regard to the body we find it used in Job 41:23 in the description of leviathan (the crocodile): "The flakes of his flesh are joined together: they are firm upon him; they cannot be moved." Baethgen in Kautzsch's translation of the Old Testament translates "Wampen," i.e. the collops or lateral folds of flesh and armored skin. A better translation would perhaps be: "the horny epidermic scales" of the body, differentiated from the bony dermal scutes of the back (Hebrew "channels of shields," "courses of scales"), which are mentioned in Job 41:15 margin.
H. L. E. Luering
Flame
Flame - flam (lahabh, and other forms from same root; phlox): In Judges 13:20 bis; Job 41:21; Isaiah 29:6; Joel 2:5, the word is lahabh. Various other words are translated "flame"; mas'eth, "a lifting or rising up" (Judges 20:38, 40 the King James Version), the Revised Version (British and American) "cloud" (of smoke); kalil, "completeness" (Judges 200:40b King James Version margin, "a holocaust, or offering wholly consumed by fire"; compare Leviticus 6:15); shalhebheth (Job 15:30; Song of Solomon 8:6; the American Standard Revised Version "a very flame of Yahweh," margin "or, a most vehement flame"; Ezekiel 20:47, the Revised Version (British and American) "the flaming flame"); shabhibh (Job 18:5; the Revised Version, margin); shebhibh, Aramaic (Daniel 3:22; 7:9). In Psalms 104:4 the American Standard Revised Version has "maketh .... flames of fire his ministers"; the Revised Version (British and American) "flame" for "snare" (Proverbs 29:8).
Figuratively: "Flame" is used to denote excitement (Proverbs 29:8 the Revised Version (British and American)), shame, astonishment, "faces of flame" (Isaiah 13:8); in Revelation 1:14, the glorified Christ is described as having eyes "as a flame of fire," signifying their searching purity (compare Revelation 2:18; 19:12). Flame is also a symbol of God's wrath (Psalms 83:14; Isaiah 5:24; 10:17).
See also FIRE.
W. L. Walker
Flat Nose
Flat Nose - (charum; Septuagint koloborin): Used only in Leviticus 21:18 as the name of a deformity which disqualified a member of a priestly family for serving the altar. The root of the word signifies "to cut off" or "to cut flat," and in the Revised Version, margin "slit nose" is substituted. The condition indicated is most probably the depressed, flattened nose which so often accompanies harelip, especially in its double form. A mere snub-nose can scarcely be regarded as a blemish of sufficient importance to unfit a priest for the service of "offering the bread of God"; but harelip, like blindness or the other congenital malformations or deformities enumerated in this passage, might well render a son of Aaron unfit or unsuitable for public religious duty.
Alexander Macalister
Flax
Flax - flaks pesheth, also pishtah; linon (Matthew 12:20)): The above Hebrew words are applied (1) to the plant: "The flax was in bloom" (the King James Version "bolled"; Exodus 9:31); (2) the "stalks of flax," literally, "flax of the tree," put on the roof to dry (Joshua 2:6); (3) to the fine fibers used for lighting: the King James Version "tow," "flax," the Revised Version (British and American). "A dimly burning wick will he not quench" (Isaiah 42:3); "They are quenched as a wick" (Isaiah 43:17). The thought is perhaps of a scarcely lighted wick just kindled with difficulty from a spark. (4) In Isaiah 19:9 mention is made of "combed flax," i.e. flax hackled ready for spinning (compare Hosea 2:5, 9; Proverbs 31:13). The reference in Judges 15:14 is to flax twisted into cords. (5) In Judges 16:9; Isaiah 1:31, mention is made of ne`oreth, "tow," literally, something "shaken off"--as the root implies--from flax. (6) The plural form pishtim is used in many passages for linen, or linen garments, e.g. Leviticus 13:47-48, 52, 59; Deuteronomy 22:11; Jeremiah 13:1 ("linen girdle"); Ezekiel 44:17 f. Linen was in the earliest historic times a favorite material for clothes. The Jewish priestly garments were of pure linen. Egyptian mummies were swathed in linen. Several other Hebrew words were used for linen garments.
See LINEN.
Flax is the product of Linum usitatissimum, a herbaceous plant which has been cultivated from the dawn of history. It is perennial and grows to a height of 2 to 3 ft.; it has blue flowers and very fibrous stalks. The tough fibers of the latter, after the decay and removal of the softer woody and gummy material, make up the crude "flax." Linseed, linseed oil and oilcake are useful products of the same plant.
E. W. G. Masterman
Flaying
Flaying - fla'-ing.
See PUNISHMENTS.
Flea
Flea - fle (par`osh; compare Arabic barghut, "flea," and barghash, "mosquito" (1 Samuel 24:14; 26:20); kinnim (Exodus 8:16), "lice," the Revised Version, margin "sandflies" or "fleas"; Septuagint skniphes, probably best rendered "gnat"; see GNAT; LICE): In 1 Samuel 24 Saul seeks David in the wilderness of En-gedi, and David, after cutting off the skirt of Saul's robe in the cave, calls out to him, "After whom is the king of Israel come out? after whom dost thou pursue? after a dead dog, after a flea" (24:14). Again in 1 Samuel 26:20 Saul seeks David in the wilderness of Ziph, and David after taking the spear and cruse from beside Saul while he slept, cries out to him, ".... the king of Israel is come out to seek a flea, as when one doth hunt a partridge in the mountains." The flea is here used as a symbol of David's insignificance, coupled perhaps, in the second passage, with a thought of the difficulty that Saul had in laying hands on him. In Encyclopedia Biblica Cheyne finds fault with a similar interpretation given in DB on the ground that it is absurd that David should refer to hunting "a single flea," and proposes to change par`osh 'echadh "a flea," to pere' midhbar, "wild ass of the desert." The writer will only say that no observant resident of Palestine would consider the textual alteration to be called for.
Linnaeus recognized two species of flea, Pulex irritans, the common parasite of man, and Pulex (Sarcopsylla) penetrans, the tropical and sub-tropical jigger flea. More than a hundred species are now listed, and the recent discovery that certain fleas are instrumental in the transmission of the plague has given a new impetus to the study of these tiny pests. A flea that is often commoner in houses than Pulex irritans is the "dog and cat flea," variously known as Pulex serraticeps, Pulex canis, Pulex felis or Ctenocephalus canis.
Alfred Ely Day
Flee
Flee - fle.
See FLY.
Fleece
Fleece - fles.
Flesh
Flesh - @basar, she'er):
1. Etymology: Used in all senses of the word, the latter, however, most frequently in the sense of kin, family, relationship (compare sha'arah, "kins-woman," Leviticus 18:17): Leviticus 18:6; 25:49; Proverbs 11:17; Jeremiah 51:35, and probably Psalms 73:26. In all other places she'er means "flesh" = body (Proverbs 5:11) or = food (Psalms 78:20, 27; Micah 3:2-3). Tibhchah, is "(slaughtered) flesh for food," "butcher's meat" (1 Samuel 25:11). The word 'eshpar, found only in two parallel passages (2 Samuel 6:19 = 1 Chronicles 16:3), is of very uncertain meaning. The English versions translate it with "a good piece (portion) of flesh," the Vulgate (Jerome's Latin Bible, 390-405 A.D.) with "a piece of roast meat," others with "a portion of flesh" and "a measure of wine." It probably means simply "a measured portion." lachum, literally, "eaten," then food (compare lechem, "bread"), has been rarely specialized as flesh or meat (compare Arabic lachm, "meat," "flesh," so in Zephaniah 1:17, where it stands in parallelism with "blood"). The Greek terms are sarx, and kreas, the latter always meaning "butcher's meat" (Romans 14:21; 1 Corinthians 8:13).
We can distinguish the following varieties of meaning in Biblical language:
2. Ordinary Sense: In a physical sense, the chief substance of the animal body, whether used for food and sacrifice, or not; also the flesh of man (Genesis 2:21; Exodus 21:10 m; Isaiah 31:3; Ezekiel 23:20; 1 Corinthians 15:39; Revelation 19:18, 21).
3. The Body: The whole body. This meaning is the extension of the preceding (pars pro toto). This is indicated by the Septuagint, where basar is often translated by the plural hai sarkes (Genesis 40:19; Numbers 12:12; Job 33:25), and occasionally by soma, i.e. "body" (Leviticus 15:2; 1 Kings 21:27). This meaning is also very clear in passages like the following: Exodus 4:7; Leviticus 17:14; Numbers 8:7; 2 Kings 4:34; Proverbs 5:11, where basar and she'er are combined; and Proverbs 14:30; Ecclesiastes 12:12.
4. The Term "All Flesh": Flesh, as the common term for living things, animals and men, especially the latter (Genesis 6:13, 17, 19; Numbers 16:22; Jeremiah 12:12; Mark 13:20); often in the phrase "all flesh" (Psalms 65:2; Isaiah 40:5-6; Jeremiah 25:31; Ezekiel 20:48; Joel 2:28; Luke 3:6).
5. As Opposed to the Spirit: Flesh as opposed to the spirit, both of which were comprised in the preceding meaning (Genesis 6:3; Psalms 16:9; Luke 24:39, where "flesh and bones" are combined; John 6:63). Thus we find in John 1:14, "The Word became flesh"; 1 Timothy 3:16, "He who was manifested in the flesh"; 1 John 4:2, and all passages where the incarnation of Christ is spoken of. The word in this sense approaches the meaning of "earthly life," as in Philippians 1:22, 24, "to live in the flesh," "to abide in the flesh"; compare Philemon 1:16 and perhaps 2 Corinthians 5:16. Under this meaning we may enumerate expressions such as "arm of flesh" (2 Chronicles 32:8; Jeremiah 17:5), "eyes of flesh" (Job 10:4), etc. Frequently the distinction is made to emphasize the weakness or inferiority of the flesh, as opposed to the superiority of the spirit (Isaiah 31:3; Matthew 26:41; Mark 14:38; Romans 6:19). In this connection we mention also the expression "flesh and blood," a phrase borrowed from rabbinical writings and phraseology (see also Sirach 14:18, "the generation of flesh and blood," and 17:31, "man whose desire is flesh and blood" the King James Version). The expression does not convey, as some have supposed, the idea of inherent sinfulness of the flesh (a doctrine borrowed by Gnostic teachers from oriental sources), but merely the idea of ignorance and frailty in comparison with the possibilities of spiritual nature. The capabilities of our earthly constitution do not suffice to reveal unto us heavenly truths; these must always come to us from above. So Peter's first recognition of the Divine sonship of Jesus did not proceed from a logical conviction based upon outward facts acting upon his mind, but was based upon a revelation from God vouchsafed to his inner consciousness. Christ says therefore to him: "Blessed art thou, Simon Bar-Jonah: for flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my Father who is in heaven" (Matthew 16:17). Similarly the kingdom of God, being a realm of perfect spiritual submission to God, cannot be inherited by flesh and blood (1 Corinthians 15:50), nor was the richly endowed mind a competent tribunal to which Paul could refer his heaven-wrought conviction of his great salvation and the high calling to be a witness and apostle of Christ, so he did well that he "conferred not with flesh and blood" (Galatians 1:16). That "flesh and blood" does not imply a sense of inherent sinfulness is moreover shown in all passages where Christ is declared a partaker of such nature (Ephesians 6:12; Hebrews 2:14, where, however, we find in the original text the inverted phrase "blood and flesh").
6. Applied to the Carnal Nature: Flesh in the sense of carnal nature (sarkikos, "carnal"; the King James Version uses sarkinos in Romans 7:14). Human nature, being inferior to the spiritual, is to be in subjection to it. If man refuses to be under this higher law, and as a free agent permits the lower nature to gain an ascendancy over the spirit, the "flesh" becomes a revolting force (Genesis 6:3, 12; John 1:13; Romans 7:14; 1 Corinthians 3:1, 3; Colossians 2:18; 1 John 2:16). Thus, the fleshly or carnal mind, i.e. a mind in subjection to carnal nature, is opposed to the Divine spirit, who alone is a sufficient corrective, Christ having secured for us the power of overcoming (Romans 8:3), if we manifest a deep desire and an earnest endeavor to overcome (Galatians 5:17-18).
7. In the Sense of Relationship: Flesh in the sense of relationship, tribal connection, kith and kin. For examples, see what has been said above on Hebrew she'er. The following passages are a few of those in which basar is used: Genesis 2:24; 37:27; Job 2:5; compare the New Testament passages: Matthew 19:5-6; Romans 1:3; 3, 5, 8. The expressions "bone" and "flesh" are found in combination (Genesis 2:23; 29:14; Judges 9:2; 2 Samuel 5:1; 2 Samuel 19:12-13; Ephesians 5:31, the latter in some manuscripts only).
8. Other Meanings: Some other subdivisions of meanings might be added, for example where "flesh" takes almost the place of "person," as in Colossians 2:1: "as many as have not seen my face in the flesh," i.e. have not known me personally, or Colossians 2:5, "absent in the flesh, yet am I with you in the spirit," etc.
H. L. E. Luering
Flesh and Blood
Flesh and Blood - See FLESH, 5.
Flesh-hook
Flesh-hook - flesh'-hook (mazlegh, and plural mizlaghoth): One of the implements used around the sacrificial altar. According to Divine direction given to Moses (Exodus 27:3; 38:3), it was to be made of brass, but later David felt impelled by "the Spirit" or "in his spirit" to determine that for use in the magnificent Temple of Solomon it should be made of gold (1 Chronicles 28:17). But Huram made it, with other altar articles, of "bright brass" (2 Chronicles 4:16). In Samuel's time, it was made with three hook-shaped tines, and was used in taking out the priests' share of the meat offering (1 Samuel 2:13-14). With the other altar utensils, it was in the special charge of the Kohathites (Numbers 4:14). The hooks mentioned in Ezekiel 40:43 were altogether different and for another purpose.
See HOOK.
Leonard W. Doolan
Flesh-pot
Flesh-pot - flesh'-pot (cir ha-basar, "pot of the flesh"): One of the six kinds of cooking utensils spoken of as pots or pans or caldrons or basins. Probably usually made of bronze or earthenware. The only mention of flesh-pots, specifically so named, is in Exodus 16:3.
See FOOD.
Flies
Flies - fliz.
See FLY.
Flint
Flint - flint (challamish (Deuteronomy 8:15; 32:13; Job 28:9; Psalms 114:8), tsor (Exodus 4:25; Ezekiel 3:9), tser (Isaiah 5:28), tsur (Job 22:24; Psalms 89:43), tsurim (Joshua 5:2 f); (= kechlex "pebble"), kochlax (1 Maccabees 10:73)): The word challamish signifies a hard stone, though not certainly flint, and is used as a figure for hardness in Isaiah 50:7, "Therefore have I set my face like a flint." A similar use of tsor is found in Ezekiel 3:9, "As an adamant harder than flint have I made thy forehead," and Isaiah 5:28, "Their horses' hoofs shall be accounted as flint"; and of tsela` in Jeremiah 5:3, "They have made their faces harder than a rock." The same three words are used of the rock from which Moses drew water in the wilderness: challamish (Deuteronomy 8:15; Psalms 114:8); tsur (Exodus 17:6; Deuteronomy 8:15; Psalms 78:20; Isaiah 48:21); cela` (Numbers 20:8; Nehemiah 9:15; Psalms 78:16). Tsur and cela` are used oftener than challamish for great rocks and cliffs, but tsur is used also for flint knives in Exodus 4:25, "Then Zipporah took a flint (the King James Version "sharp stone"), and cut off the foreskin of her son," and in Joshua 5:2 f, "Yahweh said unto Joshua, Make thee knives of flint (the King James Version "sharp knives"), and circumcise again the children of Israel the second time." Surgical implements of flint were used by the ancient Egyptians, and numerous flint chippings with occasional flint implements are found associated with the remains of early man in Syria and Palestine. Flint and the allied mineral, chert, are found in great abundance in the limestone rocks of Syria, Palestine and Egypt.
See ROCK.
Alfred Ely Day
Float (Flote)
Float (Flote) - flot.
See RAFT; SHIPS AND BOATS
Flock
Flock - See CATTLE.
Flood
Flood - flud: In the King James Version not less than 13 words are rendered "flood," though in the Revised Version (British and American) we find in some passages "river," "stream," "tempest," etc. The word is used for: the deluge of Noah, mabbul (Genesis 6:17 ff); kataklusmos (Matthew 24:38-39; Luke 17:27); the waters of the Red Sea, nazal (Exodus 15:8); the Euphrates, nahar, "Your fathers dwelt of old time on the other side of the flood". (the Revised Version (British and American) "beyond the River" Joshua 24:2): the Nile, ye'or, "the flood (the Revised Version (British and American) "River") of Egypt" (Amos 8:8); the Jordan, nahar, "They went through the flood (the Revised Version (British and American) "river") on foot" (Psalms 66:6); torrent, zerem, "as a flood (the Revised Version (British and American) "tempest") of mighty waters" (Isaiah 28:2); potamos, "The rain descended and the floods came" (Matthew 7:25); plemmura, "When a flood arose, the stream brake against that house" (Luke 6:48).
Figurative: nachal, "The floods of ungodly men (the Revised Version (British and American) "ungodliness," the Revised Version, margin "Hebrew Belial") made me afraid" (2 Samuel 22:5; Psalms 18:4); also 'or (Amos 8:8 (the King James Version)); shibboleth (Psalms 69:2); sheTeph (Daniel 11:22 (the King James Version)); sheTeph (Psalms 32:6 (the King James Version)); potamophoretos (Revelation 12:15 (the King James Version)).
See DELUGE OF NOAH.
Alfred Ely Day
Floor
Floor - flor.
See HOUSE; THRESHING-FLOOR
Flote (Float)
Flote (Float) - See RAFT; SHIPS AND BOATS.
Flour
Flour - flour.
Flourish
Flourish - flur'-ish (parach, tsuts; anathallo): The translation of parach, "to break forth" (Psalms 72:7; Psalms 92:12-13; Proverbs 14:11; Isaiah 66:14; Song of Solomon 6:11; 7:12; the Revised Version (British and American) "budded"); of tsuts "to bloom" (Psalms 72:16, Psalms 90:1-17:Psalms 6:1-10; 92:7; 103:15; 132:18); ra`anan, "green," "fresh," is translated "flourishing" in Psalms 92:14, the Revised Version (British and American) "green," and ra`anan, Aramaic in Daniel 4:4; nubh, "to sprout" (Zechariah 9:17, the King James Version "cheerful").
In an interesting passage (Ecclesiastes 12:5 the King James Version), the Hiphil future of na'ats, meaning properly "to pierce or strike," hence, to slight or reject, is translated "flourish"; it is said of the old man "The almond tree shall flourish," the Revised Version (British and American) "blossom" (so Ewald, Delitzsch, etc.); na'ats has nowhere else this meaning; it is frequently rendered "contemn;" "despise," etc. Other renderings are, "shall cause loathing" (Gesenius, Knobel, etc.), "shall be despised," i.e. the hoary head; "The almond tree shall shake off its flowers," the silvery hairs falling like the fading white flowers of the almond tree; by others it is taken to indicate "sleeplessness," the name of the almond tree (shaqedh) meaning the watcher or early riser (compare Jeremiah 1:11, "a rod of an almond-tree," literally, "a wakeful (or early) tree"), the almond being the first of the trees to wake from the sleep of winter.
See ALMOND.
"Flourish" appears once only in the New Testament, in the King James Version, as translation of anathallo, "to put forth anew," or "to make put forth anew" (Philippians 4:10): "Your care for me hath flourished again," the Revised Version (British and American) "Ye have revived your thought for me."
W. L. Walker
Flowers
Flowers - flou'-erz (BLOOM, BLOSSOM, etc.):
(1) gibh`ol, literally, "a small cup," hence, calyx or corolla of a flower (Exodus 9:31, "The flax was in bloom").
(2) nets (Genesis 40:10, nitstsah, "a flower" or "blossom"; Job 15:33; Isaiah 18:5). These words are used of the early berries of the vine or olive.
(3) nitstsan, "a flower"; plural only, nitstsanim (Song of Solomon 2:12, "The flowers appear on the earth").
(4) perach, root to "burst forth" expresses an early stage of flowering; "blossom" (Isaiah 5:24; 18:5); "flower" (Nahum 1:4, "The flower of Lebanon languisheth"). Used of artificial flowers in candlesticks (Exodus 25:31 ff).
(5) tsits, "flower" (Isaiah 40:6); plural tsitstsim, flowers as architectural ornaments (1 Kings 6:18); tsitsah, "the fading flower of his glorious beauty" (Isaiah 28:1, 4; also Numbers 17:8; Job 14:2, etc.).
(6) anthos, in Septuagint equivalent of all the Hebrew words (James 1:10-11; 1 Peter 1:24).
The beauty of the profusion of flowers which cover Palestine every spring receives but scant reference in the Old Testament; Song of Solomon 2:12 is perhaps the only clear reference. It is noticeable that the native of Syria thinks little of flowers unless it be for their perfume. our Lord's reference to the flowers ("lilies") is well known (Matthew 6:28; Luke 12:27). For details of the flowers of modern Palestine, see BOTANY. The aptness of the expression "flower of the field" for a type of the evanescence of human life (Job 14:2; Psalms 103:15; Isaiah 40:6; James 1:10) is the more impressive in a land like Palestine where the annual display of wild flowers, so glorious for a few short weeks, is followed by such desolation. The fresh and brilliant colors fade into masses of withered leaves (not uncommonly cleared by burning), and then even these are blown, away, so that but bare, cracked and baked earth remains for long months where once all was beauty, color and life.
E.W.G. Masterman
Flue; Net
Flue; Net - floo(King James Version, margin Habakkuk 1:15).
Flute
Flute - floot.
See MUSIC.
Flux
Flux - fluks.
See BLOODY FLUX; DYSENTERY.
Fly
Fly - (Verb; `uph petaomai, or, contracted, ptaomai): Used in preference to "flee" when great speed is to be indicated. "To fly" is used: (1) Literally, of birds, `uph (Genesis 1:20; Psalms 55:6); da'ah (Deuteronomy 28:49), of sparks (Job 5:7); of the arrow (Psalms 91:5); of the seraphim (Isaiah 6:2, 6); of an angel (Daniel 9:21, ya`aph, "to be caused to fly"); of swift action or movement (Psalms 18:10; Jeremiah 48:40); of people (Isaiah 11:14); of a fleet (Isaiah 60:8; 1 Samuel 15:19, `it; 1 Samuel 14:32, `asah, "to do," etc.). (2) Figuratively, of a dream (Job 20:8); of man's transitory life (Psalms 90:10); of riches (Proverbs 23:5); of national glory (Hosea 9:11).
For "fly" the Revised Version (British and American) has "soar" (Job 39:26) "fly down" (Isaiah 11:14); for "flying" (Isaiah 31:5) the American Standard Revised Version has "hovering."
W. L. Walker
Fly; Flies
Fly; Flies - fli fliz `arobh (Exodus 8:21 ff; Psalms 78:45; 105:31; Septuagint kunomuia; "dog-fly"), zebhubh (Ecclesiastes 10:1; Isaiah 7:18; Septuagint muiai, "flies"); compare ba`al-zebhubh, "Baal-zebub" (2 Kings 1:2 ff), and beelzeboul, "Beelzebul," or beelzeboub, "Beelzebub" (Matthew 10:25; 24, 27; Luke 11:15, 18-19); compare Arabic dhubab, "fly" or "bee"; (Note: "dh" for Arabic dhal, pronounced like "d" or "z" or like th in "the"): The references in Psalms as well as in Exodus are to the plague of flies, and the word `arobh is rendered "swarm of flies" throughout, except in Psalms 78:45; 105:31 the King James Version, where we find "divers sorts of flies" (compare Vulgate (Jerome's Latin Bible, 390-405 A.D.) omne genus muscarum). In Exodus 8:21 we read, "I will send swarms of flies upon thee, and upon thy servants, and upon thy people, and into thy houses: and the houses of the Egyptians shall be full of swarms of flies, and also the ground whereon they are"; in Exodus 8:24, .... "the land was corrupted by reason of the swarms of flies"; in Psalms 78:45, "He sent among them swarms of flies, which devoured them." There has been much speculation as to what the insects were, but all the texts cited, including even Psalms 78:45, may apply perfectly well to the common house fly (Musca domestica). Some species of blue-bottle fly (Calliphora) might also suit.
The other word, zebhubh, occurs in Ecclesiastes 10:1, "Dead flies cause the oil of the perfumer to send forth an evil odor; so doth a little folly outweigh wisdom and honor"; and Isaiah 7:18, "And it shall come to pass in that day, that Yahweh will hiss for the fly that is in the uttermost part of the rivers of Egypt, and for the bee that is in the land of Assyria:" The house fly would fit perfectly the reference in each, but that in Isa would seem to suggest rather one of the horse flies (Tabanidae) or gad flies (Oestridae). Whatever fly may be meant, it is used as a symbol for the military power of Egypt, as the bee for that of Assyria.
Owing to deficiencies in public and private hygiene, and also for other reasons, house flies and others are unusually abundant in Palestine and Egypt and are agents in the transmission of cholera, typhoid fever, ophthalmia and anthrax. Glossina morsitans, the tsetse fly, which is fatal to many domestic animals, and Glossina palpalis which transmits the sleeping sickness, are abundant in tropical Africa, but do not reach Egypt proper.
See PLAGUE.
Alfred Ely Day
Foal
Foal - fol.
See COLT.
Foam
Foam - fom (qetseph (Hosea 10:7); aphros (Luke 9:39), aphrizo (Mark 9:18, 20), epaphrizo (Jude 1:13)): Qetseph from qatsaph, "to break to pieces," or "to break forth into anger," "to be angry," occurs often in the sense of "wrath" or "anger" (e.g. Numbers 1:53; Psalms 38:1, etc.), and in this passage has been rendered "twigs" or "chips," "As for Samaria, her king is cut off, as foam (the Revised Version, margin "twigs") upon the water" (Hosea 10:7). The other references are from the New Testament. In Jude, evil-doers or false teachers are compared to the "wild waves of the sea, foaming out their own shame." In Mark and Luke the references are to the boy with a dumb spirit who foamed at the mouth.
Alfred Ely Day
Fodder
Fodder - fod'-er.
See PROVENDER.
Fold; Folding
Fold; Folding - fold fold'-ing (verb; chabhaq, sabhakh; helisso): The verb occurs only 3 times in the King James Version, and in each instance represents a different word; we have chabhaq "to clasp" (Ecclesiastes 4:5), "The fool foldeth his hands together" (compare Proverbs 6:10); cabhak, "to interweave" (Nahum 1:10, "folded together as thorns," the English Revised Version "like tangled thorns" the American Standard Revised Version "entangled like thorns"; see ENTANGLE); helisso "to roll or fold up" (Hebrews 1:12, quoted from Psalms 102:26 (Septuagint), the Revised Version (British and American) "As a mantle shalt thou roll them up"). Folding occurs as translation of galil, "turning" or "rolling" (1 Kings 6:34 bis, folding leaves of door).
See also HOUSE.
W. L. Walker
Folk
Folk - fok: The translation of `am, `am "a people or nation" (Genesis 33:15, "some of the folk that are with me"; Proverbs 30:26, "The conies are but a feeble folk"); of le'om, with the same meaning (Jeremiah 51:58, "the folk in the fire," the Revised Version (British and American) "the nations for the fire"); "sick folk" is the translation of arrhostos, "not strong" (Mark 6:5); of ton asthenounton, participle of astheneo, "to be without strength," "weak," "sick" (John 5:3, the Revised Version (British and American) "them that were sick"); "sick folks," of astheneis plural of asthenes, "without strength," the Revised Version (British and American) "sick folk" (Acts 5:16).
W. L. Walker
Follow
Follow - fol'-o ('achar, radhaph; akoloutheo, dioko) : Frequently the translation of 'achar, "after," e.g. Numbers 14:24, "hath followed me fully," literally, "fulfilled after me" (Numbers 32:11-12; Deuteronomy 1:36; Amos 7:15); radhaph is "to pursue," and is often so translated; it is translated "follow" (Psalms 23:6; Isaiah 5:11, etc.); "follow after" (Genesis 44:4; Exodus 14:4); reghel, "foot," is several times translated "follow" (literally, "at the foot of"; Exodus 11:8; Judges 8:5, etc.); halakh 'achar, "to go after" (Deuteronomy 4:3; 1 Kings 14:8, etc.); yalakh 'achar, "to go on after" (Genesis 24:5; Judges 2:19, etc.); dabheq, "to cause to cleave to" is "follow hard after" (1 Samuel 14:22; Psalms 63:8, etc.).
In the New Testament, in addition to akoloutheo (Matthew 4:20, 22, 25, etc.) various words and phrases are rendered "follow," e.g. Deute opiso mou, "Come after me" (Matthew 4:19, "Follow me," the Revised Version (British and American) "Come ye after me"); dioko, "to pursue" (Luke 17:23; 1 Thessalonians 5:15, the Revised Version (British and American) "follow after," etc.); mimeomai, "to imitate" (Hebrews 13:7, "whose faith follow," the Revised Version (British and American) "imitate their faith; 2 These 3:7,9; 3 John 1:11); compounds of akoloutheo with ex, para sun, etc. (2 Peter 1:16; Mark 16:20; Acts 16:17; Mark 5:37, etc.).
English Revised Version, "Follow after faithfulness" makes an important change in Psalms 37:3, where the King James Version has "and verily thou shalt be fed"; but the American Standard Revised Version has "feed on his faithfulness," margin "feed securely or verily thou shalt be fed." For "attained" (1 Timothy 4:6) the Revised Version (British and American) gives "followed until now."
W. L. Walker
Follower
Follower - fol'-o-er (mimetes): "Followers" is in the King James Version the translation of mimetes, "to imitate" (in the New Testament in the good sense of becoming imitators, or following an example), rendered by the Revised Version (British and American) "imitators" (1 Corinthians 4:16; 11:1; Ephesians 5:1; 1 Thessalonians 1:6; 2:14; Hebrews 6:12); summimetai, "joint imitators" (Philippians 3:17); in 1 Peter 3:13, the King James Version "followers of that which is good," the word, according to a better text, is zelotis, the Revised Version (British and American) "if ye be zealous of that which is good."
Folly
Folly - fol'-i.
See FOOL.
Food
Food - food:
I. VEGETABLE FOODS
1. Primitive Habits
2. Cereals
3. Leguminous Plants
4. Food of Trees
II. ANIMAL FOOD
LITERATURE
In a previous article (see BREAD) it has been shown that in the Bible "bread" usually stands for food in general and how this came to be so. In a complementary article on MEALS the methods of preparing and serving food will be dealt with. This article is devoted specifically to the foodstuffs of the Orient, more especially to articles of food in use among the Hebrews in Bible times. These are divisible into two main classes.
I. Vegetable Foods. 1. Primitive Habits: Orientals in general are vegetarians, rather than flesh eaters. There is some reason to believe that primitive man was a vegetarian (see Genesis 2:16; 2, 6). It would seem, indeed, from a comparison of Genesis 1:29 f with Genesis 9:3 f that Divine permission to eat the flesh of animals was first given to Noah after the Deluge, and then only on condition of drawing off the blood in a prescribed way (compare the kosher (kasher) meat of the Jews of today).
2. Cereals: The chief place among the foodstuffs of Orientals must be accorded to the cereals, included in the American Standard Revised Version under the generic term "grain," in the King James Version and the English Revised Version "corn." The two most important of these in the nearer East are wheat (chiTTah) and barley (se`orim). The most primitive way of using the wheat as food was to pluck the fresh ears (Leviticus 23:14; 2 Kings 4:42), remove the husks by rubbing in the hands (Deuteronomy 23:25; Matthew 12:1), and eat the grains raw. A common practice in all lands and periods, observed by the fellaheen of Syria today, has been to parch or roast the ears and eat the grain not ground. This is the parched corn (the American Standard Revised Version "'grain") so often mentioned in the Old Testament, which with bread and vinegar (sour wine) constituted the meal of the reapers to which Boaz invited Ruth (Ruth 2:14).
Later it became customary to grind the wheat into flour (kemach), and, by bolting it with a fine sieve, to obtain the "fine flour" (coleth) of our English Versions of the Bible, which, of course, was then made into "bread" (which see), either without leaven (matstsah) or with (lechem chamets Leviticus 7:13).
Meal, both of wheat and of barley, was prepared in very early times by means of the primitive rubbing-stones, which excavations at Lachish, Gezer and elsewhere show survived the introduction of the hand-mill (see MILL; ComparePEFS , 1902, 326). Barley (se`orim) has always furnished the principal food of the poorer classes, and, like wheat, has been made into bread (Judges 7:13; John 6:9, 13). Less frequently millet (Ezekiel 4:9) and spelt (kuccemeth; see FITCHES) were so used. (For details of baking, bread-making, etc., see BREAD. III, 1,2,3.)
3. Leguminous Plants: Vegetable foods of the pulse family (leguminosae) are represented in the Old Testament chiefly by lentils and beans. The pulse of Daniel 1:12 (zero`im) denotes edible "herbs" in general (Revised Version margin, compare Isaiah 61:11, "things that are sown"). The lentils (`adhashim) were and are considered very toothsome and nutritious. It was of "red lentils" that Jacob brewed his fateful pottage (Genesis 25:29, 34), a stew, probably, in which the lentils were flavored with onions and other ingredients, as we find it done in Syria today. Lentils, beans, cereals, etc., were sometimes ground and mixed and made into bread (Ezekiel 4:9). I found them at Gaza roasted also, and eaten with oil and salt, like parched corn.
The children of Israel, when in the wilderness, are said to have looked back wistfully on the "cucumbers .... melons .... leeks .... onions, and the garlic" of Egypt (Numbers 11:5). All these things we find later were grown in Palestine. In addition, at least four varieties of the bean, the chickpea, various species of chickory and endive, the bitter herbs of the Passover ritual (Exodus 12:8), mustard (Matthew 13:31) and many other things available for food, are mentioned in the Mishna, our richest source of information on this subject. Cucumbers (qishshu'im) were then, as now, much used. The oriental variety is much less fibrous and more succulent. and digestible than ours, and supplies the thirsty traveler often with a fine substitute for water where water is scarce or bad. The poor in such cities as Cairo, Beirut and Damascus live largely on bread and cucumbers or melons. The cucumbers are eaten raw, with or without salt, between meals, but also often stuffed and cooked and eaten at meal time. Onions (betsalim), garlic (shummim) and leeks (chatsir) are still much used in Palestine as in Egypt. They are usually eaten raw with bread, though also used for flavoring in cooking, and, like cucumbers, pickled and eaten as a relish with meat (ZDPV, IX, 14). Men in utter extremity sometimes "plucked saltwort" (malluah) and ate the leaves, either raw or boiled, and made "the roots of the broom" their food (Job 30:4).
4. Food of Trees: In Leviticus 19:23 f it is implied that, when Israel came into the land to possess it, they should "plant all manner of trees for food." They doubtless found such trees in the goodly land in abundance, but in the natural course of things needed to plant more. Many olive trees remain fruitful to extreme old age, as for example those shown the tourist in the garden of Gethsemane, but many more require replanting. Then the olive after planting requires ten or fifteen years to fruit, and trees of a quicker growth, like the fig, are planted beside them and depended on for fruit in the meantime. It is significant that Jotham in his parable makes the olive the first choice of the trees to be their king (Judges 9:9), and the olive tree to respond, "Should I leave my fatness, which God and man honor in me, and go to wave to and fro over the trees?" (American Revised Version margin). The berries of the olive (zayith) were doubtless eaten, then as now, though nowhere in Scripture is it expressly so stated. The chief use of the berries, now as ever, is in furnishing "oil" (which see), but they are eaten in the fresh state, as also after being soaked in brine, by rich and poor alike, and are shipped in great quantities. Olive trees are still more or less abundant in Palestine, especially around Bethlehem and Hebron, on the borders of the rich plains of Esdraelon, Phoenicia, Sharon and Philistia, in the vale of Shechem, the plain of Moreh, and in the trans-Jordanic regions of Gilead and Bashan. They are esteemed as among the best possessions of the towns, and the culture of them is being revived around Jerusalem, in the Jordan valley and elsewhere throughout the land. They are beautiful to behold in all stages of their growth, but especially in spring. Then they bear an amazing wealth of blossoms, which in the breeze fall in showers like snowflakes, a fact that gives point to Job's words, "He shall cast off his flower as the olive-tree" (Job 15:33). The mode of gathering the fruit is still about what it was in ancient times (compare Exodus 27:20).
Next in rank to the olive, according to Jotham's order, though first as an article of food, is the fig (in the Old Testament te'enah, in the New Testament suke), whose "sweetness" is praised in the parable (Judges 9:11). It is the principal shade and fruit tree of Palestine, growing in all parts, in many spontaneously, and is the emblem of peace and prosperity (Deuteronomy 8:8; Judges 9:10; 1 Kings 4:25; Micah 4:4; Zechariah 3:10; 1 Maccabees 14:12). The best fig and olive orchards are carefully plowed, first in the spring when the buds are swelling, sometimes again when the second crop is sprouting, and again after the first rains in the autumn. The "first-ripe fig" (bikkurah, Isaiah 28:4; Jeremiah 24:2), i.e. the early fig which grows on last year's wood, was and is esteemed as a great delicacy, and is often eaten while it is young and green. The late fig (te'enim) is the kind dried in the sun and put up in quantities for use out of season. Among the Greeks and the Romans, as well as among the Hebrews, dried figs were most extensively used. When pressed in a mold they formed the "cakes of figs" (debhelah) mentioned in the Old Testament (1 Samuel 25:18; 1 Chronicles 12:40), doubtless about such as are found today in Syria and Smyrna, put up for home use and for shipment. It was such a fig-cake that was presented as a poultice (the King James Version "plaster") for Hezekiah's boil (Isaiah 38:21; compare 2 Kings 20:7). As the fruit-buds of the fig appear before the leaves, a tree full of leaves and without fruit would be counted "barren" (Mark 11:12 f; compare Isaiah 28:4; Jeremiah 24:2; Hosea 9:10; Nahum 3:12; Matthew 21:19; Luke 13:7).
Grapes ('anabhim), often called "the fruit of the vine" (Matthew 26:29), have always been a much-prized article of food in the Orient. They are closely associated in the Bible with the fig (compare "every man under his vine and under his fig-tree," 1 Kings 4:25). Like the olive, the fig, and the date-palm, grapes are indigenous to Syria, the soil and climate being most favorable to their growth and perfection. Southern Palestine especially yields a rich abundance of choice grapes, somewhat as in patriarchal times (Genesis 49:11-12). J. T. Haddad, a native Syrian, for many years in the employment of the Turkish government, tells of a variety in the famous valley of Eshcol near Hebron, a bunch from which has been known to weigh twenty-eight pounds (compare Numbers 13:23). Of the grapevine there is nothing wasted; the young leaves are used as a green vegetable, and the old are fed to sheep and goats. The branches cut off in pruning, as well as the dead trunk, are used to make charcoal, or for firewood. The failure of such a fruit was naturally regarded as a judgment from Yahweh (Psalms 105:33; Jeremiah 5:17; Hosea 2:12; Joel 1:7). Grapes, like figs, were both enjoyed in their natural state, and by exposure to the sun dried into raisins (tsimmuqim), the "dried grapes" of Numbers 6:3. In this form they were especially well suited to the use of travelers and soldiers (1 Samuel 25:18; 1 Chronicles 12:40). The meaning of the word rendered "raisin-cake," the American Standard Revised Version "a cake of raisins" (2 Samuel 6:19 and elsewhere), is uncertain. In Bible times the bulk of the grape product of the land went to the making of wine (which see). Some doubt if the Hebrews knew grape-syrup, but the fact that the Aramaic dibs, corresponding to Hebrew debhash, is used to denote both the natural and artificial honey (grape-syrup), seems to indicate that they knew the latter (compare Genesis 43:11; Ezekiel 27:17; and see HONEY).
Less prominent was the fruit of the mulberry figtree (or sycomore) (shiqmah), of the date-palm (tamar), the dates of which, according to the Mishna, were both eaten as they came from the tree, and dried in clusters and pressed into cakes for transport; the pomegranate (tappuach), the "apple" of the King James Version (see APPLE), or quinch, according to others; the husks (Luke 15:16), i.e. the pods of the carob tree keration), are treated elsewhere. Certain nuts were favorite articles of food--pistachio nuts (boTnim), almonds (sheqedhim) and walnuts ('eghoz); and certain spices and vegetables were much used for seasoning: cummin (kammon), anise, dill (the King James Version) qetsach), mint (heduosmon) and mustard (sinapi), which see. Salt (melach), of course, played an important part, then as now, in the cooking and in the life of the Orientals. To "eat the salt" of a person was synonymous with eating his bread (Ezra 4:14), and a "covenant of salt" was held inviolable (Numbers 18:19; 2 Chronicles 13:5).
II. Animal Food. Anciently, even more than now in the East, flesh food was much less used than among western peoples. In the first place, in Israel and among other Semitic peoples, it was confined by law to the use of such animals and birds as were regarded as "clean" (see CLEAN; UNCLEANNESS), or speaking according to the categories of Leviticus 11:2-3; Deuteronomy 14:4-20, domestic animals and game (see Driver on Deuteronomy 14:4-20). Then the poverty of the peasantry from time immemorial has tended to limit the use of meat to special occasions, such as family festivals (chaggim), the entertainment of an honored guest (Genesis 18:7; 2 Samuel 12:4), and the sacrificial meal at the local sanctuary.
The goat (`ez, etc.), especially the "kid of the goats" (Leviticus 4:23, 18 the King James Version), was more prized for food by the ancient Hebrews than by modern Orientals, by whom goats are kept chiefly for their milk--most of which they supply (compare Proverbs 27:27). For this reason they are still among the most valued possessions of rich and poor (compare Genesis 30:33; 32:14 with 1 Samuel 25:2). A kid, as less valuable than a lamb, was naturally the readier victim when meat was required (compare Luke 15:29).
The sheep of Palestine, as of Egypt, are mainly of the fat-tailed species (Ovis aries), the tail of which was forbidden as ordinary food and had to be offered with certain other portions of the fat (Exodus 29:22; Leviticus 3:9). To kill a lamb in honor of a gue st is one of the highest acts of Bedouin hospitality. As a rule only the lambs are killed for meat, and they only in honor of some guest or festive occasion (compare 1 Samuel 25:18; 1 Kings 1:19). Likewise the "calves of the herd" supplied the daintiest food of the kind, though the flesh of the neat cattle, male and female, was eaten. The "fatted calf" of Luke 15:23 will be recalled, as also the "fatlings" and the "stalled" (stall-fed) ox of the Old Testament (Proverbs 15:17). Asharp contrast suggestive of the growth of luxury in Israel is seen by a comparison of 2 Samuel 17:28 f with 1 Kings 4:22 f. The food furnished David and his hardy followers at Mahanaim was "wheat, and barley, and meal, and parched grain, and beans, and lentils, and parched pulse, and honey, and butter, and sheep, and cheese of the herd," while the daily provision for Solomon's table was "thirty measures of fine flour, and threescore measures of meal, ten fat oxen, and twenty oxen out of the pastures, and a hundred sheep, besides harts, and gazelles, and roebucks, and fatted fowl." Nehemiah's daily portion is given as "one ox and six choice sheep" (Nehemiah 5:18).
Milk of large and small animals was a staple article of food (Deuteronomy 32:14; Proverbs 27:27). It was usually kept in skins, as among the Syrian peasants it is today (Judges 4:19). We find a generic term often used (chem'ah) which covers also cream, clabber and cheese (Proverbs 30:33). The proper designation of cheese is gebhinah (Job 10:10), but chalabh also is used both for ordinary milk and for a cheese made directly from sweet milk (compare 1 Samuel 17:18, charitse hechalabh, and our "cottage cheese").
See MILK.
Honey (debhash, nopheth ha-tsuphim), so often mentioned with milk, is ordinary bees' honey (see HONEY). The expression "honey" in the combination debhash wechalabh, for which Palestine was praised, most likely means debhash temarim, i.e. "date-juice." It was much prized and relished (Psalms 19:10; Proverbs 16:24), and seems to have been a favorite food for children (Isaiah 7:15).
Of game seven species are mentioned (Deuteronomy 14:5). The gazelle and the hart were the typical animals of the chase, much prized for their flesh (Deuteronomy 12:15), and doubtless supplied the venison of Esau's "savory meat" (Genesis 25:28; 27:4).
Of fish as food little is said in the Old Testament (see Numbers 11:5; Jeremiah 16:16; Ezekiel 47:10; Ecclesiastes 9:12). No particular species is named, although thirty-six species are said to be found in the waters of the Jordan valley alone. But we may be sure that the fish which the Hebrews enjoyed in Egypt "for nought" (Numbers 11:5) had their successors in Canaan (Kennedy). Trade in cured fish was carried on by Tyrian merchants with Jerusalem in Nehemiah's day (Nehemiah 13:16), and there must have been a fish market at or near the fish gate (Nehemiah 3:3). The Sea of Galilee in later times was the center of a great fish industry, as is made clear by the Gospels and by Josephus In the market of Tiberias today fresh fish are sold in great quantities, and a thriving trade in salt fish is carried on. The "small fishes" of our Lord's two great miracles of feeding were doubtless of this kind, as at all times they have been a favorite form of provision for a journey in hot countries.
As to the exact price of food in ancient times little is known. From 2 Kings 7:1, 16 we learn that one ce'ah of fine flour, and two of barley, sold for a shekel (compare Matthew 10:29). For birds allowed as food see Deuteronomy 14:11 and articles on CLEAN; UNCLEANNESS.
Pigeons and turtle doves find a place in the ritual of various sacrifices, and so are to be reckoned as "clean" for ordinary uses as well. The species of domestic fowl found there today seem to have been introduced during the Persian period (compare 2 Esdras 1:30; Matthew 23:37; 26:34, etc.). It is thought that the fatted fowl of Solomon's table (1 Kings 4:23) were geese (see Mish). Fatted goose is a favorite food with Jews today, as it was with the ancient Egyptians.
Of game birds used for food (see Nehemiah 5:18) the partridge and the quail are prominent, and the humble sparrow comes in for his share of mention (Matthew 10:29; Luke 12:6). Then, as now, the eggs of domestic fowls and of all "clean" birds were favorite articles of food (Deuteronomy 22:6; Isaiah 10:14; Luke 11:12).
Edible insects (Leviticus 11:22 f) are usually classed with animal foods. In general they are of the locust family (see LOCUST). They formed part of the food of John the Baptist (Matthew 3:4, etc.), were regarded by the Assyrians as delicacies, and are a favorite food of the Arabs today. They are prepared and served in various ways, the one most common being to remove the head, legs and wings, to drop it in meal, and then fry it in oil or butter. It then tastes a little like fried frogs' legs. In the diet of the Baptist, locusts were associated with wild honey (see HONEY).
As to condiments (see separate articles on SALT; CORIANDER, etc.) it needs only to be said here that the caperberry (Ecclesiastes 12:5 margin) was eaten before meals as an appetizer and, strictly speaking, was not a condiment. Mustard was valued for the leaves, not for the seed (Matthew 13:31). Pepper, though not mentioned in Scripture, is mentioned margin the Mishna as among the condiments. Before it came into use, spicy seeds like cummin, the coriander, etc., played a more important role than since.
The abhorrence of the Hebrews for all food prepared or handled by the heathen (see ABOMINATION) is to be attributed primarily to the intimate association in early times between flesh food and sacrifices to the gods. This finds conspicuous illustration in the case of Daniel (Daniel 1:8), Judas Maccabeus (2 Maccabees 5:27), Josephus (Vita, III), and their compatriots (see also Acts 15:20, 29; 1 Corinthians 8:1-10; 19, 28). As to sources of food supply and traffic in food stuffs, for primitive usages see Genesis 18:7; 27:9; 1 Kings 21:2. As to articles and customs of commerce adopted when men became dwellers in cities, see Jeremiah 37:21, where bakers were numerous enough in Jerusalem to give their name to a street or bazaar, where doubtless, as today, they baked and sold bread to the public (compare Mishna,passim). Extensive trade in "victuals" in Nehemiah's day is attested by Nehemiah 13:15 f, and by specific mention of the "fish gate" (Nehemiah 3:3) and the "sheep gate" (Nehemiah 3:1), so named evidently because of their nearby markets. In John's Gospel (John 4:8; 13:29) we have incidental evidence that the disciples were accustomed to buy food as they journeyed through the land. In Jerusalem, cheese was clearly to be bought in the cheesemakers' valley (Tyropoeon), oil of the oil merchants (Matthew 25:9), and so on; and Corinth, we may be sure, was not the only city of Paul's day that had a provision market ("shambles," 1 Corinthians 10:25 the Revised Version (British and American)).
LITERATURE.
Mishna B.M. i. 1,2 and passim; Josephus, Vita and BJ; Robinson's Researches, II, 416, etc.; and Biblical Dictionaries, articles on "Food," etc.
George B. Eager
Fool; Folly
Fool; Folly - fool nabhal, 'ewil, kecil, cakhal and forms; aphron, aphrosune, moros):
I. In the Old Testament. 1. General: Taking the words generally, apart from the Wisdom literature, we find nabhal frequently translated "fool" and nebhalah, "folly"; nabhal, however, denotes a wicked person, an evil character, "shamelessly immoral," equivalent to "a son of Belial" (Cheyne), rather than a merely "foolish" person, and nebhalah, "wickedness," "shameless impropriety," rather than simple folly. We have almost a definition of nabhal in Isaiah 32:6: "For the fool will speak folly, and his heart will work iniquity, to practice profaneness, and to utter error against Yahweh, to make empty the soul of the hungry, and to cause the drink of the thirsty to fail." Abigail described her husband, Nabhal, as "a son of Belial" (the Revised Version (British and American) "worthless fellow"), "for as his name is, so is he" (1 Samuel 25:25), and what we read of him bears out this character. Other occurrences of the words support the above meaning; they are generally associated with some form of wickedness, frequently with base and unnatural lewdness (Genesis 34:7; Deuteronomy 22:21; Joshua 7:15; Judges 19:23, 14; 6, 10; 2 Samuel 13:12). When in Psalms 14:1; 53:1 it is said, "The fool hath said in his heart, There is no God," it is followed by the statement, "They are corrupt, they have done abominable works," showing that more than "folly" is implied. In Isaiah 32:5-6 the King James Version nabhal is translated "vile person" and nebhalah "villany," the Revised Version (British and American) "fool" and "folly," Jeremiah 29:23; halal, implying loud boasting is in the King James Version translated "foolish," but it means, rather, "arrogant," which the Revised Version (British and American) adopts (Psalms 5:5; 73:3; 75:4, margin "fools"); cakhal, "a fool," also occurs (Genesis 31:28; 1 Samuel 13:13, etc.) for which word see (4) below; also ya'al "to be empty," "to be or become foolish" (Numbers 12:11; Isaiah 19:13; Jeremiah 5:4; 50:36).
2. The Wisdom Literature: In the Chokhmah or Wisdom literature, which, within the Bible, is contained in Job, Proverbs (especially), Ecclesiastes, Canticles, some Psalms and certain portions of the prophetic writings, "fool" and "folly" are frequent and distinctive words. Their significance is best seen in contrast with "Wisdom." This was the outcome of careful observation and long pondering on actual life in the light of religion and the Divine revelation. Wisdom had its seat in God and was imparted to those who "feared" Him ("The fear of Yahweh is the beginning (chief part) of knowledge" Proverbs 1:7). Such wisdom was the essence of life, and to be without it was to walk in the way of death and destruction. The fool was he who was thoughtless, careless, conceited, self-sufficient, indifferent to God and His Will, or who might even oppose and scoff at religion and wise instruction. See WISDOM. Various words are used to designate "the fool" and his "folly."
(1) nabhal (Job 2:10; 30:8; Psalms 53:1; Proverbs 17:7-21); nebhalah (Job 42:8; Isaiah 9:17) (see above).
(2) 'ewil, one of the commonest, the idea conveyed by which is that of one who is hasty, impatient, self-sufficient (Proverbs 12:15; 15:5; 16:22); despising advice and instruction (Proverbs 1:7; 14:9; 24:7); ready to speak and act without thinking (Proverbs 10:14; 12:16; 20:3); quick to get angry, quarrel and cause strife (Proverbs 11:29; 14:17 'iwweleth; Proverbs 29:9); unrestrained in his anger (Job 5:2; Proverbs 17:12); silly, stupid even with brute stupidity (Proverbs 7:22; 26:11; 27:22; compare Isaiah 19:11; Jeremiah 4:22); he is associated with "transgression" (Psalms 107:17; Proverbs 13:15; Proverbs 17:18-19), with "sin" (Proverbs 24:9), with the "scoffer" (same place) ; 'iwweleth, "foolishness" occurs (Psalms 38:5; 69:5; Proverbs 13:16; "folly," Proverbs 14:8, 24, 29, etc.).
(3) kecil is the word most frequent in Proverbs. It is probably from a root meaning "thickness," "sluggishness," suggesting a slow, self-confident person, but it is used with a wide reference. Self-confidence appears (Proverbs 14:16; 28:26); ignorance (Ecclesiastes 2:14); hate of instruction (Proverbs 1:22; 18:2); thoughtlessness (Proverbs 10:23; 17:24); self-exposure (Proverbs 14:33; 15:2; 18:7; 29:11; Ecclesiastes 5:1; 10:12); anger and contention (Proverbs 18:6; 19:1; Ecclesiastes 7:9); rage (Proverbs 14:16; 17:12); indolence and improvidence (Ecclesiastes 4:5; Proverbs 21:20); silly merriment (Ecclesiastes 7:4-5, 6); brutishness (Proverbs 26:11; compare Psalms 49:10; 92:6); it is associated with slander (Proverbs 10:18), with evil (Proverbs 13:19).
(4) cakhal, cekhel, cikhluth, also occur. These are probably from a root meaning "to be stopped up" (Cheyne), and are generally taken as denoting thickheadedness; but they are used in a stronger sense than mere foolishness (compare 1 Samuel 26:21; 2 Samuel 24:10, etc.). These words do not occur in Prov, but in Ecclesiastes 2:12; 7:25; cikhluth is associated with "madness" ("Wickedness is folly, and .... foolishness is madness").
(5) pethi, "simple," is only once translated "foolish" (Proverbs 9:6 the King James Version).
(6) ba`ar, 'brutish," is translated "foolish" (Psalms 73:22 the King James Version, the Revised Version (British and American) "brutish").
(7) taphel, "insipid," "untempered," is translated "foolish" (Lamentations 2:14); tiphlah, "insipidity" (Job 1:22, "foolishly," the English Revised Version, "with foolishness"; Job 24:12, "folly"; Jeremiah 23:13, "folly," the King James Version margin"unsavoury, or, an absurd thing").
(8) toholah (Job 4:18: "Behold, he putteth no trust in his servants; and his angels he chargeth with folly" (Delitzsch, "imperfection," others, "error"), the King James Version margin"nor in his angels in whom he put light").
II. In the Apocrypha. In the continuation of the Wisdom literature in The Wisdom of Solomon and Ecclus, "fool" frequently occurs with a signification similar to that in Proverbs; in The Wisdom of Solomon we have aphron (12:24; 15:5, etc.), in Ecclesiasticus, moros (18:18; 19:11, etc.; 20:13; 21:16, etc.).
III. In the New Testament. In the New Testament we have various words translated "fool," "foolish," "folly," etc., in the ordinary acceptation of these terms; aphron, "mindless," "witless" (Luke 11:40; 12:20; 1 Corinthians 15:36); aphrosune, "want of mind or wisdom" (2 Corinthians 11:1; Mark 7:22); anoia, "want of understanding" (2 Timothy 3:9); moraino, "to make dull," "foolish" (Romans 1:22; 1 Corinthians 1:20); moros, "dull," "stupid" (Matthew 7:26; 23:17; 25:2; 1 Corinthians 1:25, 27); moria, "foolishness" (1 Corinthians 1:18, etc.); morologia, "foolish talk" (Ephesians 5:4).
In Matthew 5:22 our Lord says: "Whosoever shall say (to his brother), Thou fool (more), shall be in danger of the hell of fire (the Gehenna of fire)." Two explanations of this word are possible: (1) that it is not the vocative of the Greek moros--a word which was applied by Jesus Himself to the Pharisees (Matthew 23:17, 19), but represents the Hebrew morah, "rebel" applied in Numbers 20:10 by Moses to the people, "ye rebels" (for which he was believed to be excluded from the promised land; compare Numbers 20:12; hence, we have in the Revised Version, margin "or moreh, a Hebrew expression of condemnation"); or (2) that, as our Lord spake in the Aramaic it is the Greek translation of a word representing the Hebrew nabhal, "vile, or worthless fellow," atheist, etc. (Psalms 14:1; 53:1).
W. L. Walker
Foolery
Foolery - fool'-er-i: The plural "fooleries" occurs Ecclesiasticus 22:13 King James Version: "Talk not much with a fool .... and thou shalt never be defiled with his fooleries." The Greek word is entinagmos, "a striking or throwing in," "an attack," from entinasso, "to strike into," "cast at," etc. (1 Maccabees 2:36; 2 Maccabees 4:41; 11:11). the Revised Version (British and American) renders "Thou shalt not be defiled in his onslaught," margin "defiled: in his onslaught turn." The meaning is most probably "with what he throws out," i.e. his foolish or vile speeches, as if it were slaver.
Foot
Foot - foot (reghel, qarcol (only twice in parallel passages: 2 Samuel 22:37 = Psalms 18:36, where it probably means ankle); pous): The dusty roads of Palestine and other eastern lands make a much greater care of the feet necessary than we are accustomed to bestow upon them. The absence of socks or stockings, the use of sandals and low shoes rather than boots and, to an even greater degree, the frequent habit of walking barefoot make it necessary to wash the feet repeatedly every day. This is always done when entering the house, especially the better upper rooms which are usually carpeted. It is a common dictate of good manners to perform this duty to a visitor, either personally or through a servant; at least water for washing has to be presented (Genesis 18:4; Luke 7:44). This has therefore become almost synonymous with the bestowal of hospitality (1 Timothy 5:10). At an early date this service was considered one of the lowest tasks of servants (1 Samuel 25:41), probably because the youngest and least trained servants were charged with the task, or because of the idea of defilement connected with the foot. It was, for the same reason, if rendered voluntarily, a service which betokened complete devotion. Jesus taught the greatest lesson of humility by performing this humble service to His disciples (John 13:4-15). The undoing of the latchets or leather thongs of the sandals (Mark 1:7; Luke 3:16; John 1:27) seems to refer to the same menial duty.
Often the feet and shoes were dusted on the highway, as is being done in the Orient to this day, but if it were done in an ostentatious manner in the presence of a person or a community who had refused hospitality to a stranger, it was understood in the same sense in which the cutting in two of the tablecloth was considered in the days of knighthood: it meant rejection and separation (Matthew 10:14; Acts 13:51).
The roads of the desert were not only dusty but rough, and the wanderer was almost sure to ruin his ill-made shoes and wound his weary feet. A special providence of God protected the children of Israel from this experience during the long journey through the wilderness. "Thy raiment waxed not old upon thee, neither did thy foot swell, these forty years" (Deuteronomy 8:4; 29:5).
In the house shoes and sandals were never worn; even the most delicate would put on shoes only when going out (Deuteronomy 28:56). The shoes were left outside of the house or in a vestibule. This was especially done in the house of God and at the time of prayer, for whenever or wherever that might be, the law was: "Put off thy shoes from off thy feet, for the place whereon thou standest is holy ground" (Exodus 3:5; Joshua 5:15; Acts 7:33). This custom still prevails among the Moslems of our day. Probably it was the idea of defilement through contact with the common ground which gave rise to its moral application by the Preacher, "Keep thy foot when thou goest to the house of God" (Ecclesiastes 5:1 (Hebrews 4:16)).
Nakedness of the feet in public, especially among the wealthier classes, who used to wear shoes or sandals, was a token of mourning (Ezekiel 24:17 and probably also Jeremiah 2:25 and Isaiah 20:2-4). A peculiar ceremony is referred to in Deuteronomy 25:9-10, whereby a brother-in-law, who refused to perform his duty under the Levirate law, was publicly put to shame. "And his name shall be called in Israel, The house of him that hath his shoe loosed." See also Ruth 4:7-8.
Numerous are the phrases in which the word "foot" or "feet" is used in Biblical language. "To cover the feet" (1 Samuel 24:3) is synonymous with obeying a call of Nature. "To speak with the feet" is expressive of the eloquence of abusive and obscene gesticulation among oriental people, where hands, eyes and feet are able to express much without the use of words (Proverbs 6:13). "To sit at the feet," means to occupy the place of a learner (Deuteronomy 33:3; Luke 10:39; Acts 22:3). Vanquished enemies had to submit to being trodden upon by the conqueror (a ceremony often represented on Egyptian monuments; Joshua 10:24; Psalms 8:6; 110:1; compare Isaiah 49:23). James warns against an undue humiliation of those who join us in the service of God, even though they be poor or mean-looking, by bidding them to take a lowly place at the feet of the richer members of the congregation (James 2:3). We read of dying Jacob that "he gathered up his feet into the bed," for he had evidently used his bed as a couch, on which he had been seated while delivering his charge to his several sons (Genesis 49:33). "Foot" or "feet" is sometimes used euphemistically for the genitals (Deuteronomy 28:57; Ezekiel 16:25). In Deuteronomy 11:10 an interesting reference is made to some Egyptian mode of irrigating the fields, `the watering with the foot,' which mode would be unnecessary in the promised land of Canaan which "drinketh water of the rain of heaven." It is, however, uncertain whether this refers to the water-wheels worked by a treadmill arrangement or whether reference is made to the many tributary channels, which, according to representations on the Egyptian monuments, intersected the gardens and fields and which could be stopped or opened by placing or removing a piece of sod at the mouth of the channel. This was usually done with the foot. Frequently we find references to the foot in expressions connected with journeyings and pilgrimages, which formed so large a part in the experiences of Israel, e.g. Psalms 91:12, "lest thou dash thy foot against a stone"; Psalms 94:18, "My foot slippeth"; Psalms 121:3, "He will not suffer thy foot to be moved," and many more. Often the reference is to the "walk," i.e. the moral conduct of life (Psalms 73:2; Job 23:11; 31:5).
Figurative: In the metaphorical language of Isaiah 52:7 "the feet" are synonymous with "the coming."
H. L. E. Luering
Footman
Footman - foot'-man.
See WAR.
Footstool
Footstool - foot'-stool (kebhes; hupopodion, "trodden on"): The 15 Scripture references to this term may be classified as literal or figurative. Of the former are the two passages: 2 Chronicles 9:18 and James 2:3. In these the footstool was a sort of step or support for the feet placed before the throne or any pretentious seat.
Of figurative uses, there are the following groups: (1) Of the earth: Isaiah 66:1; Matthew 5:35; Acts 7:49. (2) Of the ark: 1 Chronicles 28:2. (3) Of the Temple: Psalms 99:5; 132:7; Lamentations 2:1; compare Isaiah 60:13. (4) Of heathen enemies subdued by the Messianic King: Psalms 110:1; Matthew 22:44 the King James Version; Mark 12:36; Luke 20:43; Acts 2:35; Hebrews 1:13; 10:13. Thus the uses of this term are mainly metaphorical and symbolic of subjection, either to God as universal Lord or to God's Son as King by redemptive right. Compare 1 Corinthians 15:25-27, in which all things, including death, are represented as subject to Christ and placed beneath His feet.
Leonard W. Doolan
For
For - for (ki (conjunction), le, from 'el (preposition), and various other words. In the New Testament also the words are various, chiefly gar, kai gar, hoti (conjunctions); anti apo eis dia (accusative), epi (dative and accusative), peri (genitive), pros (genitive and accusative), huper (genitive) (prepositions)): the English Revised Version and the American Standard Revised Version give in many cases more literal or more accurate renderings than those in the King James Version.
In the New Testament the most important preps. from a doctrinal point of view are anti, "face to face," "over against," "instead," "on behalf of," peri, "around," "about," "concerning," huper, "over," "on behalf of." The first has been claimed as stating the substitutionary nature of Christ's sacrifice as contrasted with huper and peri, more frequently used of it. But, although anti in the New Testament often means "instead of," "answering to," it does not necessarily imply substitution. On the other hand, in classical Greek huper is sometimes used in that sense (see Trench, Synonyms). "Here as always the root idea of the preposition, the root idea of the case, and the context must all be considered" (Robertson, Grammar, 124). Anti is found in this connection only in Matthew 20:28, and Mark 10:45. In Matthew 26:28; Mark 14:24, we have peri, also in Hebrews 10:6, 8, 18, 26; 1 Peter 3:18; 1 John 2:2; 4:10. Luke 22:19-20 has huper, which is the word commonly used by Paul, as in Romans 5:6, 8; 8:32; 14:15; 1 Corinthians 15:3, etc., also by John in his Gospel, 1 Corinthians 6:20; 10:11, etc., and 1 John 3:16; also Hebrews 2:9; 10:12; 1 Peter 2:21; 3:18; 4:1; in Romans 8:3 it is peri.
W. L. Walker
Foray
Foray - for'-a (2 Samuel 3:22).
See WAR.
Forbear
Forbear - for-bar' (chadhal; anechomai): In the Old Testament chadhal, "to leave off," is the word most frequently translated "forbear" (Exodus 23:5, etc.); damam, "to be silent," chasakh, "to keep back," mashakh, "to draw or stretch out," occur once each; the Revised Version (British and American) renders Ezekiel 24:17 (damam), "Sigh, but not aloud," margin "Hebrew be silent,"; Proverbs 24:11 (chasakh), "See that thou hold back," margin "or forbear thou not to deliver," the King James Version "if thou forbear to deliver"; Nehemiah 9:30 (mashakh), "bear" instead of "forbear"; 'aph literally, "breathing," the "nose," hence, from violent breathing, "anger" ('erekh, "long," understood), and kul "to hold," are translated "forbearing" (Proverbs 25:15; Jeremiah 20:9, respectively).
In the New Testament we have anechomai, "to hold self back or up," "with longsuffering, forbearing one another" (Ephesians 4:2,; Colossians 3:13); aniemi "to send back," the King James Version and the Revised Version (British and American) "forbear threatening' (Ephesians 6:9); pheidomai, "to spare," "but I forbear" (2 Corinthians 12:6); meergazesthai, "not to work," "to forbear working" (1 Corinthians 9:6); stego, "to cover," "conceal": "when I could no longer forbear" (1 Thessalonians 3:1, 5).
W. L.Walker
Forbearance
Forbearance - for-bar'-ans (anoche): "Forbearance" (anoche, "a holding back") is ascribed to God (Romans 2:4, "the riches of his goodness and forbearance and longsuffering"; Romans 3:25 the Revised Version (British and American), "the passing over of the sins done aforetime, in the forbearance of God," the King James Version "remission" (margin "passing over") of sins, that are past, through the forbearance of God"); in Philippians 4:5, to epieikes is translated by the Revised Version (British and American) "forbearance," margin "gentleness"; it is a Christian grace in likeness to God. "Forbearing" (The King James Version, margin) is substituted by the Revised Version (British and American) for "patient" (anexikakos, "holding up under evil") in 2 Timothy 2:24.
W. L. Walker
Forbid
Forbid - for-bid' (kala; koluo): Occurs very seldom in the Old Testament except as the rendering of chalilah (see below); it is once the translation of kala', "to restrain" (Numbers 11:28, "Joshua .... said My lord Moses forbid them"); twice of tsawah, "to command" (Deuteronomy 2:37, "and wheresoever Yahweh our God forbade us"; Deuteronomy 4:23, "Yahweh thy God hath forbidden thee," literally, "commanded"); once of lo', "not," the Revised Version (British and American) "commanded not to be done" (Leviticus 5:17). In the phrases, "Yahweh forbid" (1 Samuel 24:6; 26:11; 1 Kings 21:13), "God forbid" (Genesis 44:7; Joshua 22:29; 24:16; 1 Samuel 12:23; Job 27:5, etc.), "My God forbid it me" (1 Chronicles 11:19), the word is chalilah, denoting profanation, or abhorrence (rendered, Genesis 18:25 the King James Version, "that be far from thee"); the English Revised Version leaves the expressions unchanged; the American Standard Revised Version substitutes "far be it from me," "thee," etc., except in 1 Samuel 14:45; 20:2, where it is, "Far from it."
In the New Testament koluo, "to cut short," "restrain" is the word commonly translated "forbid" (Matthew 19:14, "forbid them not," etc.); in Luke 6:29, the Revised Version (British and American) has "withhold not"; diakoluo, with a similar meaning, occurs in Matthew 3:14, "John forbade him," the Revised Version (British and American) "would have hindered him"; akolutos, "uncut off" (Acts 28:31), is translated "none forbidding him." The phrase "God forbid" (me genoito, "let it not be," Luke 20:16; Romans 3:4, etc.) is retained by the Revised Version (British and American), with margin "Be it not so," except in Galatians 6:14, where the text has "Far be it from me"; me genoito is one of the renderings of chalilah in Septuagint. "God forbid" also appears in Apocrypha (1 Maccabees 2:21, the Revised Version (British and American) "Heaven forbid," margin, Greek "may he be propitious," 1 Maccabees 9:10, the Revised Version (British and American) "Let it not be").
W. L. Walker
Forces
Forces - for'-sis (chayil):
(1) The word is used as a military term, equivalent to army, in 2 Kings 25:23, 16 (where the King James Version reads "armies"); 2 Chronicles 17:2; Jeremiah 40:7, etc.
See ARMY.
(2) In Isaiah 60:5, 11, it is rendered in the Revised Version (British and American) by "wealth," and in Ob verse 11, by "substance."
Two other Hebrew words are also translated "forces" in the King James Version, ma'amatstsim (Job 36:19), and ma`oz (Daniel 11:38), the latter being rendered in the Revised Version (British and American) "fortresses."
Ford
Ford - ford (ma`abhar (Genesis 32:22; "pass" (of Michmash), 1 Samuel 13:23; "stroke" (the Revised Version, margin "passing"), Isaiah 30:32); ma`barah (Joshua 2:7; Judges 3:28; Judges 12:5-6; Isaiah 16:2; "pass" (of Michmash), 1 Samuel 14:4; "passages" (the Revised Version, margin "fords"), Jeremiah 51:32); `abharah (2 Samuel 15:28; 17:16; "ferry-boat" (the Revised Version, margin "convoy"), 2 Samuel 19:18); from `abhar, "to pass over"; compare Arabic `abar, "to pass over" and ma`bar, "a ford"): In the journeyings of the children of Israel, in addition to the miraculous passages of the Red Sea and the Jordan, they had other streams to pass over, especially the Zered (Chisa') and the Arnon (Maujib) (Numbers 21:12-13; Deuteronomy 2:24). The Jabbok (Zarqa) is frequently referred to, particularly in connection with Jacob (Genesis 32:22). The most frequent references are to the Jordan which, in time of flood, was impassable (Joshua 3:15). The lower Jordan is about 100 ft. wide, and from 5 to 12 ft. deep, so that in the absence of bridges, the places where it was possible to ford were of great importance. The passage of the Jordan is referred to in connection with Jacob (Genesis 32:10), Gideon (Judges 8:4), the children of Ammon (Judges 10:9), Abner and his men (2 Samuel 2:29), David (2 Samuel 10:17; 17:22), Absalom (2 Samuel 17:24), and others. Jesus undoubtedly crossed the Jordan, and John is thought to have baptized at the ford of the Jordan near Jericho. The fords of the Jordan are specifically mentioned in Joshua 2:7 in connection with the pursuit of the spies who were hidden in Rahab's house, and in 2 Samuel 15:28; 17:16 in connection with the flight of David. In the last two passages we have abharah, the same word which, in the account of David's return (2 Samuel 19:18), is rendered "ferry-boat" (the Revised Version, margin "convoy").
See JORDAN.
Alfred Ely Day
Forecast
Forecast - for-kast'; (vb.) (chashabh): To forecast is both to plan or scheme beforehand and to consider or see beforehand. It is in the first sense that it is used in Daniel 11:24-25 (the King James Version) as the translation of chashabh, "to think," "meditate," "devise," "plot," "He shall forecast his devices (The King James Version, margin "Hebrew think his thoughts") against the strongholds"; "They shall forecast devices against him," the Revised Version (British and American) "devise his devices"; compare Nahum 1:9, "What do ye devise against Yahweh?" In the second sense, the word occurs in Wisdom of Solomon 17:11 the Revised Version (British and American), "Wickedness .... always forecasteth the worst lot" (proeilephen), margin "Most authorities read hath added" (proseilephen).
W. L. Walker
Forefather
Forefather - for'-fa-ther:
(1) 'abh ri'shon, "first father," "chief father," hence, "early ancestor": "turned back to the iniquities of their forefathers" (Jeremiah 11:10).
(2) progonos, "born before," "ancestor": "whom I serve from my forefathers" (2 Timothy 1:3). It is translated "parents" (including grandparents) in 1 Timothy 5:4: "and to requite their parents."
Forefront
Forefront - for'-frunt (panim): For "forefront," "front" is now generally used, since "back-front" has gone out of use. "Forefront" is the translation of panim, "face" (2 Kings 16:14; Ezekiel 40:19 bis; Ezekiel 47:1); of mul panim, "over against the face" (Exodus 26:9; Leviticus 8:9, "And he put the mitre upon his head; also upon the mitre even upon his forefront, did he put the golden plate"; for "upon his forefront" the Revised Version (British and American) has "in front; 2 Samuel 11:15, "in the forefront of the hottest battle"); of ro'sh, "head" (2 Chronicles 20:27); of shen, "tooth" (1 Samuel 14:5, "The forefront (The King James Version, margin "Hebrew tooth") of the one was situated northward over against Michmash," the Revised Version (British and American) "The one crag rose up on the north in front of Michmash"); in 1 Maccabees 4:57 margin it is the translation of prosopon, "face": "They decked the forefront of the temple with crowns of gold."
The Revised Version (British and American) has "forefront" for "face" (Ezekiel 40:15), "in the forefront of" for "over against" (Joshua 22:11).
W. L. Walker
Forego
Forego - for-go'.
See FORGO.
Forehead
Forehead - for'-ed (metsach; metopon):
(1) In a literal sense the word is used frequently in the Scriptures. Aaron and after him every high priest was to wear on the forehead the golden frontlet having the engraved motto, "Holy to Yahweh" (Exodus 28:36, 38). The condition of the forehead was an important criterion in the diagnosis of leprosy by the priest (Leviticus 13:42-43; 2 Chronicles 26:20). It was in the forehead that brave young David smote Goliath with the stone from his sling (1 Samuel 17:49). The faulty translation of the King James Version in Ezekiel 16:12 has been corrected in the Revised Version (British and American), reference being had in the passage to a nose-ring, not to an ornament of the forehead. While the cutting or tattooing of the body was strictly forbidden to the Israelite on account of the heathen associations of the custom (Leviticus 19:28), we find frequent mention made of markings on the forehead, which were especially used to designate slaves (see Philo, De Monarchia, I) or devotees of a godhead (Lucian, De Syria Dea, 59). In 3 Maccabees 2:29 we read that Ptolemy IV Philopator branded some Jews with the sign of an ivy leaf, marking them as devotees of Bacchus-Dionysos. Possibly we may compare herewith the translation of Isaiah 44:5 (Revised Version margin): "And another shall write on his hand, Unto Yahweh" (or Yahweh's slave). Very clear is the passage Ezekiel 9:4, 6 (and perhaps Job 31:35), where the word used for "mark" is taw, the name of the last letter of the Hebrew alphabet which in its earliest form has the shape of an upright plus sign (Baal Lebanon Inscr; 11th century BC) or of a lying (St Andrew's) cross X (Moabite Inscr, 9th century BC), the simplest sign in the old Israelite alphabet, and at the same time the character which in the Greek alphabet represents the X, the initial of Christ. In the New Testament we find a clear echo of the above-mentioned Old Testament passage, the marking of the foreheads of the righteous (Revelation 7:3; 9:4; 14:1; 22:4). The godless followers of the beast are marked on the (right) hand and on the forehead (Revelation 13:16; 14:9; 20:4), and the apocalyptic woman dressed in scarlet and purple has her name written on her forehead (Revelation 17:5).
(2) In a metaphorical sense the expression, "a harlot's forehead," is used (Jeremiah 3:3) to describe the shameless apostasy and faithlessness of Israel. Ezek speaks of the stiff-necked obstinacy and the persistent unwillingness of Israel to hear the message of Yahweh: "All the house of Israel are of a hard forehead and of a stiff heart" (Jeremiah 3:7), and God makes his prophet's "forehead hard .... as an adamant harder than flint," whereby an unflinching loyalty to God and a complete disregard of opposition is meant (Jeremiah 3:8-9). Compare the phrase: "to harden the face," under the word FACE.
H. L. E. Luering
Foreign Divinities
Foreign Divinities - for'-in di-vin'-i-tiz (Acts 17:18 margin).
Foreigner
Foreigner - for'-in-er" The translation of nokhri, "unknown," "foreign," frequently rendered "stranger" (Deuteronomy 15:3; Obadiah 1:11); of toshabh, "a settler," "an alien resident" (Exodus 12:45; the Revised Version (British and American) "sojourner"; compare Leviticus 25:47; Psalms 39:12); of paroikos, "dwelling near," "sojourner" (Ephesians 2:19, the Revised Version (British and American) sojourners").
Revised Version has "foreigner" for "stranger" (Deuteronomy 17:15; 23:20; 29:22; Ruth 2:10; 2 Samuel 15:19), for "alien" (Deuteronomy 14:21); "the hand of a foreigner" for "a stranger's hand" (Leviticus 22:25).
See ALIEN; STRANGER AND SOJOURNER.
Foreknow; Foreknowledge
Foreknow; Foreknowledge - for-no', for-nol'-ej:
1. Meaning of the Term
2. Foreknowledge as Prescience
3. Foreknowledge Based on Foreordination
4. Foreknowledge as Equivalent to Foreordination
LITERATURE
1. Meaning of the Term: The word "foreknowledge" has two meanings. It is a term used in theology to denote the prescience or foresight of God, that is, His knowledge of the entire course of events which are future from the human point of view; and it is also used in the King James Version and the Revised Version (British and American) to translate the Greek words proginoskein and prognosis in the New Testament, in which instances the word "fore-knowledge" approaches closely the idea of fore-ordination.
2. Fore-knowledge as Prescience: In the sense of prescience foreknowledge is an aspect of God's omniscience (see OMNISCIENCE). God's knowledge, according to the Scripture, is perfect, that is, it is omniscience. It is true that the Scripture makes use of anthropomorphic forms of expression as regards the way in which God obtains knowledge (Genesis 3:8), and sometimes even represents Him as if He did not know certain things (Genesis 11:5; 18:21); nevertheless the constant representation of the Scripture is that God knows everything. This perfect knowledge of God, moreover, is not merely a knowledge which is practically unlimited for all religious purposes, but is omniscience in the strictest sense of the term. In the historical books of the Old Testament the omniscience of God is a constant underlying presupposition when it is said that God watches men's actions, knows their acts and words, and discloses to them the future; while in the Psalms, Prophets and Wisdom literature, this Divine attribute becomes an object of reflection, and finds doctrinal expression. It cannot, however, be said that this attribute of God appears only late in the history of special revelation; it is a characteristic of the Biblical idea of God from the very first, and it is only its didactic expression which comes out with especial clearness in the later books. God's knowledge, then, is represented as perfect. Since He is free from all limits of space, His omniscience is frequently connected with His omnipresence. This is the thought which underlies the anthropomorphic expressions where God is represented as seeing, beholding and having eyes. God's eyes go to and fro throughout the whole earth (2 Chronicles 16:9), and are every place beholding the evil and the good (Proverbs 15:3). Even Sheol is naked and open to God's sight (Proverbs 15:11; Job 26:6). The night and darkness are light to Him, and darkness and light for God are both alike (Psalms 139:12). All animals and fowls are His, and so are known by Him (Psalms 50:11), and as their Creator God knows all the hosts of the heavenly bodies (Psalms 147:4; Isaiah 40:26). He knows also the heart of man and its thoughts (1 Samuel 16:7; 1 Kings 8:39; Psalms 7:9 (Hebrews 10:1-39); 94:11; 139:2; Jeremiah 11:20; Jeremiah 17:9-10; 20:12; Ezekiel 11:5). Furthermore, God knows man entirely in all his ways (Psalms 139:1-5; Proverbs 5:21). He looks from heaven and sees all men (Psalms 11:4; 14:2; Psalms 33:13-14, 15). Evil and sin are also known to God (Genesis 3:11; 5, 9, 13; 2 Samuel 7:20; Psalms 69:5 (Hebrews 6:1-20); Jeremiah 16:17; 18:23). In a word, God knows with absolute accuracy all about man (Job 11:11; 34:21; Psalms 33:15; Proverbs 5:21; Hosea 5:3; Jeremiah 11:20; 12:3; 17:9 f; Jeremiah 18:23). This perfect knowledge finds its classic expression in Psalms 139:1-24.
God is also, according to the Old Testament, free from all limitations of time, so that His consciousness is not in the midst of the stream of the succeeding moments of time, as is the case with the human consciousness. God is not only without beginning or end of days, but with Him a thousand years are as one day. Hence, God knows in one eternal intuition that which for the human consciousness is past, present and future. In a strict sense, therefore, there can be no foreknowledge or prescience with God, and the distinction in God's knowledge made by theologians, as knowledge of reminiscence, vision and prescience, is after all an anthropomorphism. Nevertheless this is the only way in which we can conceive of the Divine omniscience in its relation to time, and consequently the Scripture represents the matter as if God's knowledge of future events were a foreknowledge or prescience, and God is represented as knowing the past, present and future.
It is God's knowledge of events which from the human point of view are future that constitutes His foreknowledge in the sense of prescience. God is represented as having a knowledge of the entire course of events before they take place. Such a knowledge belongs to the Scriptural idea of God from the very outset of special revelation. He knows beforehand what Abraham will do, and what will happen to him; He knows beforehand that Pharaoh's heart will be hardened, and that Moses will deliver Israel (Genesis 15:13 ff; Exodus 3:19; 7:4; 11:1 ff). The entire history of the patriarchal period of revelation exhibits plainly the foreknowledge of God in this sense. In prophecy this aspect of the Divine knowledge is made the subject of explicit assertion, and its religious significance is brought out. Nothing future is hidden from Yahweh (Isaiah 41:22 ff; Isaiah 42:9; Isaiah 43:9-13; Isaiah 44:6-8; 46:10; Daniel 2:22; Amos 3:7), and this foreknowledge embraces the entire course of man's life (Psalms 31:15 (Hebrews 16); 39:5 (Hebrews 6:1-20); 139:4-6,16; Job 14:5). These passages from Isa show that it is from the occurrence of events in accordance with Yahweh's prediction that the Prophet will prove his foreknowledge; and that in contrast with the worshippers of idols which are taken by surprise, Israel is warned of the future by the omniscient Yahweh.
In the New Testament likewise, God's omniscience is explicitly affirmed. Jesus taught that God knows the hidden secrets of man's heart (Luke 16:15); and this is also the teaching of the apostles (Acts 1:24; 15:8; 1 Corinthians 2:10; 3:20; 1 Thessalonians 2:4; Revelation 2:23). In a word, according to the author of the Epistle to the He, everything is open to God, so that He is literally omniscient (Hebrews 4:13). And as in the Old Testament, so also in the New Testament, foreknowledge in the sense of prescience is ascribed to God. Jesus asserts a foreknowledge by God of that which is hidden from the Son (Mark 13:32), and James asserts that all God's works are foreknown by Him (Acts 15:18). Moreover, the many references in the New Testament to the fulfillment of prophecy all imply that the New Testament writers ascribed foreknowledge, in this sense of foresight, to God.
Denials of the Divine foreknowledge, in this sense of prescience, have been occasioned, not by exegetical considerations, but by the supposed conflict of this truth with human freedom. It was supposed that in order to be free, an event must be uncertain and contingent as regards the fact of its futurition, and that too in the most absolute sense, that is, from the Divine as well as the human point of view. Hence, the Socinians and some Arminians denied the foreknowledge of God. It was supposed either that God voluntarily determines not to foresee the free volitions of man, or else that since God's omniscience is simply the knowledge of all that is knowable, it does not embrace the free acts of man which are by their nature uncertain and so unknowable. And upon this view of freedom, this denial of God's foreknowledge was logically necessary. If the certainty of events with respect to the fact of their futurition is inconsistent with freedom, then human freedom does conflict with God's foreknowledge, since God cannot know future events as certainly future unless they actually are so. Since, therefore, the Divine foreknowledge is quite as inconsistent with this view of freedom as is the Divine foreordination, the view of those who regard God as a mere onlooker on the course of future events which are supposed to be entirely independent of His purpose and control, does not help matters in the least. If God foreknows future events as certain, then they must be certain, and if so, then the certainty of their actually occurring must depend either upon God's decree and providential control, or else upon a fate independent of God. It was to escape these supposed difficulties that the doctrine known as scientia media was propounded. It was supposed that God has a knowledge of events as conditionally future, that is, events neither merely possible nor certainly future, but suspended upon conditions undetermined by God. But this hypothesis is of no help and is not true. Besides being contrary to the Scripture in its idea that many events lie outside the decree of God, and that God must wait upon man in His government of the world, there is really no such class of events as this theory asserts. If God foreknows that the conditions on which they are suspended will be fulfilled, then these events belong to the class of events which are certainly future; whereas if God does not know whether or not the conditions will be fulfilled by man, then His foreknowledge is denied, and these events in question belong to the class of those merely possible. Nor do the Scripture passages to which appeal is made, such as Genesis 11:6; Exodus 3:19; Deuteronomy 7:3-4; 1 Samuel 23:10-13; 2 Samuel 12:8, etc., afford a basis for this doctrine. The Scripture of course recognizes that God has put all things in relations of mutual dependence, and speaks of what can or cannot happen under such and such conditions; but none of these passages assert or imply that the events are suspended upon conditions which are either unknown or undetermined by God.
3. Foreknowledge Based on Foreordination: God's foreknowledge, according to the Scripture teaching, is based upon His plan or eternal purpose, which embraces everything that comes to pass. God is never represented as a mere onlooker seeing the future course of events, but having no part in it. That God has such a plan is the teaching of the entire Scripture. It is implied in the Old Testament conception of God as an Omnipotent Person governing all things in accordance with His will. This idea is involved in the names of God in the patriarchal revelation, 'El, 'Elohim, 'El Shadday, and in the prophetic name Yahweh of Hosts. This latter name teaches not only God's infinite power and glory, but also makes Him known as interposing in accordance with His sovereign will and purpose in the affairs of this world, and as having also the spiritual powers of the heavenly world at His disposal for the execution of His eternal purpose. Hence, this idea of God comes to signify the omnipotent Ruler of the universe (Psalms 24:10; Isaiah 6:3; 51:5; 54:5; Jeremiah 10:16; Amos 9:5; compare Oehler, Theol. of the Old Testament, English translation, II, 280).
Not only in this conception of God as omnipotent and sovereign Ruler is the thought of His eternal plan evolved; it is explicitly asserted throughout the whole Old Testament. The purpose of God as determining human history in the Book of Gen lies clearly upon the surface of the narrative, as, for example, in the history of Abraham and of Joseph. And where there is no abstract statement of this truth, it is evident that the writer regards every event as but the unfolding of the purpose of God. In the Psalms, Prophets, and Wisdom literature, this truth finds explicit and reiterated assertion. Yahweh has an eternal purpose (Psalms 33:11), and this purpose will certainly come to pass (Isaiah 14:27; 43:13). This purpose includes all events and renders certain their occurrence (Isaiah 14:24; 40:10; Isaiah 46:9-10; Zechariah 1:6). In the Wisdom literature the ethical character of this plan is dwelt upon, as well as its all-embracing character, and the certainty of its fulfillment (Proverbs 16:4, 33; 19:21; 20:24; Job 28:23). The providential control wherewith Yahweh executes this plan includes the heart of man (Proverbs 21:1).
The New Testament likewise regards all history as but the unfolding of God's eternal purpose (Acts 4:28), which includes man's salvation (Ephesians 1:4-5; 2 Timothy 1:9), the provision of Christ as Saviour (1 Peter 1:20), and the good works of the Christian (Ephesians 2:10).
See PREDESTINATION.
Now while the writers of the Old Testament and the New Testament do not write in an abstract or philosophical manner nor enter into metaphysical explanations of the relation between God's foreknowledge and foreordination, it is perfectly evident that they had a clear conception upon this subject. Although anthropomorphisms are used in regard to the manner in which God knows, He is never conceived as if He obtained His knowledge of the future as a mere onlooker gazing down the course of events in time. The idea that the omnipotent Creator and sovereign Ruler of the universe should govern the world and form His plan as contingent and dependent upon a mere foresight of events outside His purpose and control is not only contrary to the entire Scriptural idea of God's sovereignty and omnipotence, but is also contrary to the Scriptural idea of God's foreknowledge which is always conceived as dependent upon His sovereign purpose. According to the Scriptural conception, God foreknows because He has foreordained all things, and because in His providence He will certainly bring all to pass. His foreknowledge is not a dependent one which must wait upon events, but is simply the knowledge which God has of His own eternal purpose. Dillmann has called this "a productive foreknowledge" (Handbuch d. attest. Theol., 251). This is not exactly correct. The Old Testament does not conceive God's foreknowledge as "producing" or causing events. But when Dillmann says that in the Old Testament there is no hint of an "idle foreknowledge" on God's part, he is giving expression to the truth that in the Old Testament God's foreknowledge is based upon His foreordination and providential control of all things. The Divine foreknowledge, therefore, depends upon the Divine purpose which has determined the world plan (Amos 3:7), and all its details (Job 28:26-27). Before man is born God knows him and chooses him for his work (Jeremiah 1:5; Job 23:13-14), and God's thorough knowledge of man in Psalms 139:1-24 is made to rest upon the fact that God has determined man's lot beforehand (Psalms 139:14-16).
The same thing is true of the New Testament teaching on this subject. The Divine foreknowledge is simply God's knowledge of His own eternal purpose. This is especially clear in those cases where God's eternal purpose of redemption through Christ is represented as a mystery which is known by God and which can be known by man only when it pleases God to reveal it (Ephesians 1:9; 4, 9).
4. Foreknowledge as Equivalent to Foreordination: While, therefore, the foreknowledge of God in the sense of prescience is asserted in the New Testament, this is not the meaning of the term when used to translate the Greek words proginoskein and prognosis. These words which are translated in the King James Version and the Revised Version (British and American) by the word "foreknowledge," and once by the word "foreordain" (1 Peter 1:20 the King James Version), mean much more than mere intellectual foresight or prescience. Both the verb and the noun approach the idea of foreordination and are closely connected with that idea in the passages where these words occur. Thus, in Peter's speeches in Acts the predestination which finds expression in 1 Peter 4:19 is practically identified with the term prognosis in 1 Peter 2:23. Everything which happened to Jesus took place in accordance with "the determinate counsel and foreknowledge of God," so that nothing happened except that which God had foreordained. In this verse the term foreknowledge is an expansion of the idea of God's "counsel" or plan, regarding it as an intelligent prearrangement, the idea of foreknowledge being assimilated to that of foreordination. The same idea is found in 1 Peter 1:20. Here the apostle speaks of Christ as a lamb "foreordained" by God before the foundation of the world. The Greek verb proegnosmenou, meaning literally, "foreknown" (as in the Revised Version (British and American)) is translated "foreordained" in the King James Version. It is evidently God's foreordination of Jesus as Saviour which Peter has in mind. Also in 1 Peter 1:2 those to whom the apostle is writing are characterized as "elect according to the foreknowledge (prognosis) of God," where the election is based on the "foreknowledge." By the prognosis or foreknowledge, however, far more is meant than prescience. It has the idea of a purpose which determines the course of the Divine procedure. If it meant simply prevision of faith or love or any quality in the objects of the election, Peter would not only flatly contradict Paul (Romans 9:11; Ephesians 1:3-4; 2 Timothy 1:9); but also such a rendering would conflict with the context of this passage, because the objects of election are chosen "unto obedience and sprinkling of the blood of .... Christ," so that their new obedience and relation to Christ are determined by their election by God, which election springs from a "foreknowledge" which therefore cannot mean a mere prescience.
In view of the fact that there was a classical use of the simple verb ginoskein in the sense of "resolve," and more especially of the fact that this word is used in the New Testament to denote an affectionate or loving regard or approbation in accordance with a common use of the Hebrew yadha` (Matthew 7:23; 1 Corinthians 8:3; Galatians 4:9; 2 Timothy 2:19), there is nothing arbitrary in giving it this sense when compounded with the preposition pro when the context clearly demands it, as it does in the above passage (compare Johnstone, Commentary on Peter in the place cited.: per contra Meyer on passages in Acts and Romans). The word prognosis is, however, discriminated from "predestination." It is that loving regard in God from which the Divine election springs, which election Peter evidently regarded as sovereign, since sanctification is only a confirmation of it (2 Peter 1:10), and stumbling and disobedience are referred to `appointment to unbelief' (1 Peter 2:8). Here, then, we have a pregnant use of foreknowledge in which it is assimilated to the idea of purpose, and denotes a sovereign and loving regard.
The word prognosis is also found in this sense in the writings of Paul, in cases where it is manifestly impossible to regard it as a mere intellectual foresight, not only because of Paul's doctrine that election is absolutely sovereign (Ephesians 1:3-4; Romans 9:11; 2 Timothy 1:9), but also because of the contexts in which the term occurs.
In Romans 8:29-30 the word "foreknow" occurs in immediate connection with God's predestination of the objects of salvation. Those whom God foreknew, He also did predestinate to be conformed to the image of His son. Now the foreknowledge in this case cannot mean a mere prescience or foresight of faith (Meyer, Godet) or love (Weiss) in the subjects of salvation, which faith or love is supposed to determine the Divine predestination. This would not only contradict Paul's view of the absolutely sovereign and gracious character of election, but is diametrically opposed to the context of this passage. These verses form a part of the encouragement which Paul offers his readers for their troubles, including their own inward weakness. The apostle tells them that they may be sure that all things work together for good to them that love God; and these are defined as being those whom God has called in accordance with His purpose. Their love to God is evidently their love as Christians, and is the result of a calling which itself follows from an eternal purpose, so that their Christian love is simply the means by which they may know that they have been the subjects of this calll. They have not come within the sphere of God's love by their own choice, but have been "called" into this relationship by God, and that in accordance with an eternal purpose on His part.
What follows, therefore, must have as its motive simply to unfold and ground this assurance of salvation by tracing it all back to the "foreknowledge" of God. To regard this foreknowledge as contingent upon anything in man would thus be in flat contradiction with the entire context of the passage as well as its motive. The word "foreknowledge" here evidently has the pregnant sense which we found it to have in Peter. Hence, those whom God predestinates, calls, justifies and glorifies are just those whom He has looked upon with His sovereign love. To assign any other meaning to "foreknowledge" here would be out of accord with the usage of the term elsewhere in the New Testament when it is put in connection with predestination, and would contradict the purpose for which Paul introduces the passage, that is, to assure his readers that their ultimate salvation depends, not on their weakness, but on God's sovereign love and grace and power.
It is equally impossible to give the word prognosis any other sense in the other passage where Paul uses it. In Romans 11:2, speaking of the Jews, Paul says that "God did not cast off his people which he foreknew." It is quite impossible to regard this as meaning that God had a foresight or mere prevision of some quality in Israel which determined His choice of them, not only because it is the teaching of the entire Scripture that God's choice of Israel was sovereign and gracious, and not only because of the actual history of Israel, but also because of the context. Paul says that it would be absurd to suppose that God had cast off His people because He foreknew them, His foreknowledge of them being adduced as a ground for His not casting them off. Hence, the argument would have no force if anything in Israel, foreseen by God, were supposed to ground an assurance that He had not cast them off, because the context is full of the hardness of heart and unbelief of Israel. The foreknowledge here has evidently the same sense as in the former passage.
Foreknowledge, therefore, in the New Testament is more than mere prescience. It is practically identical with the Divine decree in two instances, and in the other places where the term occurs it denotes the sovereign loving regard out of which springs God's predestination or election of men to salvation.
See OMNISCIENCE; PREDESTINATION.
LITERATURE.
Besides the Commentaries on the appropriate passages, especially those on Isaiah, see Dillmann, Handbuch d. alttest. Theol., 249-52; H. Schultz, Alttest. Theol., 417, 421; H Cremer, Die christliche Lehre volume den Eigenschaften Gottes, Beltrage zur Forderung christl. Theol., I, 93-101; Stewart, article "Foreknowledge," HDB, II, 51-53. Considerable Biblical as well as historical material will be found in works on systematic theology, such as Bohl, Dogmatik, 54-59; Bavinck, Gereformeerde Dogmatik2 I, 182-95. For a history of the discussion of the problem of foreknowledge and freedom see J. Muller, Die christl. Lehre volume der Sunde, III, 2, 2.
See also literature under OMNISCIENCE.
On the relation of foreknowledge and foreordination, and the meaning of prognosis, see K. Muller, Die gottliche Zuvorsehung und Erwahlung, 37 f, 81 f; Pfleiderer, Paulinismus2, 268 f; Urchristentum, 289; Gcnnrich, Studien zur Paulinischen Heilsordnung, S. K., 1898, 377 f; and on the meaning of proginoskein in Romans 8:29 see especially pp. 382-95; also Cremer, Bibl.-theol. Worterb., 263-65; Beyschlag, Neutest. Theol., II, 109; B. Weiss, Bio. Theol. of New Testament, English translation, I, 205 f; II, 6; H. Holtzmann, Lehrbuch d. neutest. Theol., II, 165 f; B.B. Warfield, article "Predestination," HDB, IV, 52-57. See also discussions of the meaning of proginoskein in the Commentaries on 1 Peter and Romans, especially Fritzsche on Romans 8:29, and Johnstone on 1 Peter 1:2.
See also literature under PREDESTINATION.
Caspar Wistar Hodge
Foreordain; Forordination
Foreordain; Forordination - for-or-dan', for-or-di-na'-shun: The word "foreordain" is uniformly used in the Revised Version (British and American) to render the Greek proorizo, in the passages where this verb occurs (Acts 4:28; Romans 8:29-30; 1 Corinthians 2:7; Ephesians 1:5, 11, 1 Corinthians 11:1-34). In the passages in Romans and Ephesians it takes the place of the King James Version word "predestinate," a return to the usage of the older English versions The word has simply the sense of determining beforehand. It is thus kindred in meaning with a number of other New Testament words expressing the idea of Divine purpose, as "foreknow" (in pregnant sense, Acts 2:23; Romans 8:29, etc.); "determine" (Acts 17:26); "appoint" (1 Peter 2:8). Foreordination, in the widest sense, is coextensive with the sphere of God's universal providence, being but another name for that Divine plan, purpose or counsel which embraces all things, great and small (Matthew 10:29-30), that happen in Nature, or fall out in human life. Man's free actions are not regarded in Scripture as excluded from it (Acts 2:28). Foreordination, at the same time, is not to be conceived of as in any way overriding, or doing violence to, human freedom. Man acts freely, as Nature acts necessarily, but it is God who appoints the time, place and circumstances of the free act, permits its happening, and overrules it and its issues for the furthering of His own wise and holy ends. See PROVIDENCE. Foreordination in the sphere of grace has respect to the choice, calling and blessing of those who, through faith, are made partakers of eternal life (Romans 8:29-30; Ephesians 1:5, 11). In this, its soteriological aspect, the subject is considered in special articles.
See CHOOSE; ELECTION; PREDESTINATION.
James Orr
Forepart
Forepart - for'-part: The translation of panim, "face" (Exodus 28:27; 39:20; 1 Kings 6:20, the Revised Version (British and American) "within"; Ezekiel 42:7, the Revised Version (British and American) "before"), and of prora, the forward part of a ship, the prow (Acts 27:41, "the forepart stuck fast," the Revised Version (British and American) "the foreship struck").
ARV has "its forepart into" for "with his face towards" (Joel 2:20 margin "with its forepart"); "in the forepart thereof" for "before it" (Exodus 28:25; 39:18).
Forerunner
Forerunner - for-run'-er (prodromos): This word occurs but once in the Bible: "Whither as a forerunner Jesus entered for us" (Hebrews 6:20). The word signifies one who comes in advance to a place where the rest are to follow, or one who is sent on before as a scout to take observations. In this sense Christ is our forerunner for He has gone into heaven to prepare a place for His people into which He will eventually lead them. The idea of a forerunner is peculiar to the Christian dispensation. The Old Testament Levitical economy knew nothing of such. The high priest was a representative, not a forerunner: where he led, namely, into the Holy of Holies, the people could not follow. He was not the pioneer of the people; Christ is. Christ goes nowhere but where His people may follow. He is the file-leader (compare Hebrews 12:2, "the author .... of faith"). He goeth before His people to prepare the way for them, to open the gates of heaven by His atoning blood and priestly intercession. The believer is led into full fellowship with God through Jesus Christ.
See also JOHN THE BAPTIST; RUNNER.
William Evans
Foresail
Foresail - for'sal, for'-s'-l (Acts 27:40).
See SHIPS AND BOATS.
Foreship
Foreship - for'-ship (Acts 9:1-43, 30).
See FOREPART; SHIPS AND BOATS.
Foreskin
Foreskin - for'-skin (`orlah; akrobustia, often euphemistically translated "uncircumcision"):
(1) In the literal sense the word is frequently mentioned owing to the rite of circumcision in vogue in Israel since the days of Abraham (Genesis 17:9-14) and among several other peoples of antiquity and modern times. The act of circumcision is represented in the temple of Khonsu, a medical deity, at Karnak. Among the Jews of antiquity circumcision had to be performed by means of a flint or stone knife (Exodus 4:25; Joshua 5:2-3) on the eighth day after birth (Genesis 17:12; 21:4; Leviticus 12:3; Luke 2:21; Philippians 3:5), even if this day was the Sabbath (John 7:23).
Very early we find the practice one of which the descendants of Abraham became proud (Genesis 34:14), so that we see the uncircumcised despised and scorned (1 Samuel 17:26), and in the time of oppression under King Antiochus Epiphanes many Israelites suffered martyrdom rather than give up the distinctive sign of their people (1 Maccabees 1:48, 60, 61; 2 Maccabees 6:10). Among the Arabs and all Mohammedans the custom of circumcision prevails from pre-Islamic times, for it is nowhere ordered in the Koran, and the appellation "uncircumcised" ghalaf)is considered the greatest possible insult.
A peculiar martial custom is mentioned in 1 Samuel 18:25, 27 (compare 2 Samuel 3:14), where Saul is represented as asking "a hundred foreskins of the Philistines" as a dowry from David for the hand of Michal. This does not seem to have been an exceptional booty in war, especially if it meant that no very careful operation was expected to be performed, but the act became practically equivalent to extermination. We find in Egyptian history at the time of Ramses III, that an invasion into Egypt had been made by several Libyan tribes (see Diimichen, Histor. Inschr., I, plates I-VI, and II, plates 47 ff). The Egyptian army sent against the invaders defeated them and returned with a large number of karnatha which is a transcription into hieroglyphics of the Semitic word, qarenoth, the word being used euphemistically as is proven by the accompanying determinative sign of a phallus. See Chabas, Etudes sur l'antiquite historique d'apres lee sources egyptienne,, etc., 234; Bondi, Hebr.-Phoen. Lehnworte im Egyptischen, Leipzig, 1886, 72-74.
(2) Metaphorically the word is used in a variety of ways: (a) In the sense of "unlawful," "forbidden as food," "taboo." The fruit of newly planted trees was not to be eaten (Leviticus 19:23-25). (b) In the sense of "obstinacy," "opposition to God's law." The rite of circumcision meant submission under the law. While an outward form could not be identical with an inward attitude toward God, the use of the word "circumcision" was soon extended to that of purity and obedience of the heart (Deuteronomy 10:16; 30:6; and Colossians 2:11, where this circumcision is called a "circumcision not made with hands, .... the circumcision of Christ"). The uselessness of outward circumcision, which does not include obedience and purity, is shown by Paul (Romans 2:25; 1 Corinthians 7:18; compare Acts 7:51). (c) In the sense of "Gentiles," "non-Israelites" (Galatians 2:7; Ephesians 2:11; Colossians 3:11).
See CIRCUMCISION; CONCISION.
H. L. E. Luering
Forest
Forest - for'-est:
(1) choresh (compare proper name Harosheth), 2 Chronicles 27:4. In 1 Samuel 23:15 ff translated "wood"; in Isaiah 17:9, "wood"; in Ezekiel 31:3, "forest-like shade." Applied to any thick growth of vegetation but not necessarily so extensive as (3).
(2) pardec: Nehemiah 2:8, margin "park"; Ecclesiastes 2:5, the King James Version "orchards," the Revised Version (British and American) "parks"; Song of Solomon 4:13, English Versions of the Bible "orchard," the Revised Version, margin "paradise." A word of Persian origin signifying probably an enclosure.
See PARADISE.
(3) ya`ar from root meaning "rugged"; compare Arabic wa`ar, "a rugged, stony region." It is sometimes rendered "forest" and sometimes (but less often in the Revised Version (British and American)) "wood." It is used of certain definite wooded tracts: "the forest in Arabia" (Isaiah 21:13, margin "thickets"); "the forest of Carmel" (2 Kings 19:23 the King James Version, the Revised Version (British and American) "of his fruitful field"); "the forest of Hereth" (1 Samuel 22:5); "the forest of Lebanon" (1 Kings 7:2 f; 1 Kings 10:17-21; 2 Chronicles 9:16-20); "the forest of Ephraim," East of the Jordan (2 Samuel 18:6, 8, 17). The word ya`ar appears also in well-known Kiriath-jearim, "the city of forests," and Mr. Jearim (Joshua 15:10). Among numerous other references the following may be cited: Deuteronomy 19:5; Joshua 17:15, 18; 1 Chronicles 16:33; 2 Kings 2:24; Psalms 80:13; 83:14; 96:12; 132:6; Ecclesiastes 2:6; Song of Solomon 2:3; 1 Samuel 7:2; 1 Samuel 14:25-26; Jeremiah 4:29; 46:23; Ezekiel 34:29; Micah 3:12; 7:14.
(4) cebhakh, from root meaning "to interweave." A "thicket" (Genesis 22:13; Jeremiah 4:7); "thicket of trees" (Psalms 74:5); "thickets of the forest" (Isaiah 9:18; 10:34).
(5) 'adbhim, "thicket" (Jeremiah 4:29).
From many references it is evident that Palestine had in Old Testament times much more extensive forests and woodlands than today. For a discussion of the subject see BOTANY.
E. W. G. Masterman
Forest of Ephraim
Forest of Ephraim - See EPHRAIM.
Foretell; Foretold
Foretell; Foretold - for-tel', for-told': The King James Version occurrences of these words in the New Testament represent as many Greek terms, and are in each case rendered differently in Revised Version: (1) Mark 13:23 (proeipon), the Revised Version (British and American) "told beforehand"; (2) Acts 3:24 (prokataggello), the Revised Version (British and American) simply "told"; (3) 2 Corinthians 13:2 (prolego), the Revised Version (British and American) "said beforehand," margin "plainly"; compare 1 Thessalonians 3:4. The foretelling of future events is claimed in the Old Testament as a prerogative of Yahweh (Isaiah 41:22-23; 42:9, etc.; compare Deuteronomy 18:22).
See PROPHECY.
Forfeit
Forfeit - for'-fit (charam): "Forfeit" (from forisfacere, "to act beyond") implies loss through transgression or non-observance of some law or rule. The word occurs only once as the translation of charam, "to shut in," frequently to devote or consecrate a person or thing to God beyond redemption (compare Leviticus 27:28-29; Micah 4:13; Ezra 10:8, "That whosoever came not within three days, .... all his substance should be forfeited, and himself separated from the assembly of the captivity," King James Version margin, the American Revised Version, margin and the Revised Version (British and American) "devoted"; compare 1 Esdras 9:4, "Their cattle should be seized to the use of the temple" (anieroo, "to consecrate," "devote"); 6:32, "all his goods seized for the king" (ta huparchonia autou einai (eis) basilika)).
The Revised Version (British and American) has "forfeited" (qadhesh, "consecrated,'; "devoted") for "defiled" (Deuteronomy 22:9), margin "Hebrew consecrated"; "forfeit his life" for "lose his own soul" (psuche) (Matthew 16:26; Mark 8:36); "lose or forfeit his own self" for "lose himself or be cast away" (Luke 9:25, heauton de apolesas e zemiotheis; zemioo is the Septuagint for `anash, "to be mulcted," or "fined," Exodus 21:22; Deuteronomy 22:19; Proverbs 17:26 m; Proverbs 19:19; 21:11; 22:3); Weymouth renders Luke 9:25, "to have lost or forfeited his own self" (or "had to pay his own self--his own existence--as a fine"); in the other instances of zemioo (1 Corinthians 3:15; Philippians 3:8), the King James Version and the Revised Version (British and American) render "suffer loss," "suffered .... loss"; 2 Corinthians 7:9 the King James Version, "receive damage."
W. L. Walker
Forge; Forger
Forge; Forger - forj, for'-jer (Taphal): "Forgers of lies" occurs in Job's reply to his comforters (13:4; compare 14:17); the word is the translation of Taphal, "to patch," "lay on," "besmear," hence, to impute, overcharge, etc.; in Psalms 119:69, "forged" occurs with a similar meaning: "The proud have forged a lie against me" (compare Sirach 51:2). "Forger," in the sense of "one who forges, makes, anything," is the Revised Version (British and American) rendering of laTas "to smite," or "hammer," in Genesis 4:22 King James Version: "Tubal-cain, an instructor of every artificer in brass and iron," the Revised Version (British and American) "the forger of every cutting instrument of brass and iron," margin "an instructor of every artificer of copper and iron."
W. L. Walker
Forget; Forgetful
Forget; Forgetful - for-get', for-get'-ful (shakhach; epilanthanomai): "Forget" is to fail to hold in mind, and the forgetfulness may be either innocent or blameworthy. In the Old Testament the word is most frequently used as translation of shakhach in a blameworthy sense: to forget the covenant, the law, Yahweh their God (Deuteronomy 4:9, 23, 11; 6:12; Judges 3:7; 1 Samuel 12:9; Psalms 44:20, etc.). In an innocent or neutral, sometimes good, sense it is used in Genesis 27:45; Deuteronomy 24:19; Job 9:27; 11:16; 24:20; Psalms 102:4, etc. It is also used of God forgetting or not seeming to care (Psalms 9:12; Psalms 10:11-12; 13:1; 42:9; 77:9; Isaiah 49:15, etc.). To "forget" sometimes means to forsake (Psalms 45:10; 74:19, etc.).
In the New Testament epilanthanomai is used of simple forgetting (Matthew 16:5; Mark 8:14, etc.; in Luke 12:6 the sense of care is implied); Philippians 3:13, "forgetting the things which are behind," has the force of leaving behind. "Forgetful" in James 1:25 is epilesmone, the Revised Version (British and American) "a hearer that forgetteth." "Forgetfulness" Psalms 88:12, "the land of forgetfulness," is a synonym for Sheol, where all forget and are forgotten. the Revised Version (British and American) has "forget not" for "be ignorant of" (2 Peter 3:8; similarly 2 Peter 3:5).
W. L. Walker
Forgiveness
Forgiveness - for-giv'-nes (kaphar, nasa', calach; apoluein charizesthai, aphesis paresis):
1. Etymology
2. Pagan and Jewish Ideas
3. The Teaching of Christ
4. Conditions of Forgiveness
5. The Offended Party
6. Divine and Human Forgiveness
7. Forgiveness and Justification
8. Old Testament Teaching
9. Limitations of Forgiveness
10. Christ's Power to Forgive Sins
11. The Need of an Atonement
12. The New Testament Doctrine of Atonement
1. Etymology: Of the seven words, three Hebrew and four Greek, which are used to express the idea of forgiveness, the last two occur in this sense only once each. Apoluein (Luke 6:37) is used because of the analogy of sin to debt, and denotes the release from it. It has the meaning "forgiveness" in 2 Maccabees 12:45 also, in which passage the word for sin is expressed. In Romans 3:25 Paul uses paresis instead of the usual aphesis. The former means "putting aside," "disregarding," "pretermission"; the latter, "putting away" completely and unreservedly (Trench, Synonyms of the New Testament, section xxxiii). It does not mean forgiveness in the complete sense, and in the King James Version is incorrectly translated "remission." Nor does it mean that God had temporarily suspended punishment which at some later date He might inflict (Sanday on Romans 3:25). It was apparent that God had treated sins as though He had forgiven them, though in fact such an attitude on the part of God was without such a foundation as was later supplied by an adequate atonement, and so the apostle avoids saying that God forgave them. This passing over of sins had the tendency of destroying man's conception of God's righteousness, and in order to avert this Christ was set forth as a propitiation and God's disregard of sin (paresis) became a real forgiveness (aphesis); compare Acts 14:16; 17:30. Charizesthai is not found outside of the writings of Luke and Paul, and in the sense "to forgive sins" is peculiarly Pauline (2 Corinthians 2:7; 12:13; Ephesians 3:2; Colossians 2:13; 3:13). It expresses, as no other of these words does, his conception of the graciousness of God's pardon. Kaphar (Deuteronomy 21:8; Psalms 78:38; Jeremiah 18:23) and calah (Numbers 30:5, 8, 12; 1 Kings 8:30, 34, 36, 39, 50, etc.) are used only of Divine forgiveness, while nasa' is used in this sense (Exodus 32:32; Numbers 14:19; Joshua 24:19; Psalms 25:18; 1, 5; 99:8; Isaiah 2:9), and also of human forgiveness (Genesis 50:17; Exodus 10:17; 1 Samuel 25:28). Remission (Matthew 26:28; Mark 1:4; Luke 1:77; 24:47; Acts 2:38; 10:43; Hebrews 9:22; 10:18) and blotting out (Psalms 51:1, 9; Isaiah 43:25; Jeremiah 18:23; Acts 3:19) are synonyms of forgiveness, and to understand it fully such words as save, justify, reconcile and atonement should also be considered.
2. Pagan and Jewish Ideas: Forgiveness was not a pagan virtue. The large-souled man might disregard offenses in cases where he considered them beneath his notice, but to forgive was weak-spirited (F. W. Robertson on 1 Corinthians 4:12). Even in the Old Testament, man's forgiveness of his fellow-man is infrequently mentioned. In every case the one asking forgiveness is in a position of subserviency, and is petitioning for that to which he has no just right (Genesis 50:17; Exodus 10:17; 1 Samuel 15:25; 25:28). The Imprecatory Psalms attest the fact that forgiveness of enemies was not esteemed as a virtue by Israel. They could appeal to the law which enjoined upon them to seek neither the peace nor the prosperity of their avowed enemies (Deuteronomy 23:6; compare Ezra 9:12). Jesus gave the popular summing-up of the law and not its exact words when he said, "Ye have heard that it was said .... hate thine enemy" (Matthew 5:43), and this certainly does represent their attitude and their understanding of the teaching of the Scriptures.
3. The Teaching of Christ: Christ taught that forgiveness is a duty. No limit can be set to the extent of forgiveness (Luke 17:4) and it must be granted without reserve. Jesus will not admit that there is any wrong so gross nor so often repeated that it is beyond forgiveness. To Him an unforgiving spirit is one of the most heinous of sins (Bruce, Parabolic Teaching, 376 ff). This is the offense which God will not forgive (Matthew 18:34-35). It is the very essence of the unpardonable sin (Mark 3:22-30). It was the one blemish of the elder son which marred an otherwise irreproachable life (Luke 15:28-30). This natural, pagan spirit of implacability Jesus sought to displace by a generous, forgiving spirit. It is so far the essence of His teaching that in popular language "a Christian spirit" is not inappropriately understood to be synonymous with a forgiving disposition. His answer to Peter that one should forgive not merely seven times in a day, but seventy times seven (Matthew 18:21-22), not only shows that He thought of no limit to one's forgiveness, but that the principle could not be reduced to a definite formula.
4. Conditions of Forgiveness: Jesus recognized that there are conditions to be fulfilled before forgiveness can be granted. Forgiveness is part of a mutual relationship; the other part is the repentance of the offender. God does not forgive without repentance, nor is it required of man. The effect of forgiveness is to restore to its former state the relationship which was broken by sin. Such a restoration requires the cooperation of both parties. There must be both a granting and an acceptance of the forgiveness. Sincere, deep-felt sorrow for the wrong which works repentance (2 Corinthians 7:10) is the condition of mind which insures the acceptance of the forgiveness. Hence, Jesus commands forgiveness when the offender turns again, saying, "I repent" (Luke 17:3, 1). It was this state of mind which led the father joyfully to welcome the Prodigal before he even gave utterance to his newly formed purpose (Luke 15:21).
5. The Offended Party: It is not to be supposed, however, that failure to repent upon the part of the offender releases the offended from all obligation to extend forgiveness. Without the repentance of the one who has wronged him he can have a forgiving state of mind. This Jesus requires, as is implied by, "if ye forgive not every one his brother from your hearts" (Matthew 18:35). It is also implied by the past tense in the Lord's Prayer: "as we also have forgiven our debtors" (Matthew 6:12). It is this forgiving spirit which conditions God's forgiveness of our sins (Mark 11:25; Matthew 6:14-15). In such a case the unforgiving spirit is essentially unrepentance (Matthew 18:23-35). "Of all acts, is not, for a man, repentance the most Divine?"
The offended is to go even farther and is to seek to bring the wrongdoer to repentance. This is the purpose of the rebuking commanded in Luke 17:3. More explicitly Jesus says, "If thy brother sin against thee, go, show him his fault between thee and him alone" (Matthew 18:15-17). He is to carry his pursuit to the point of making every reasonable effort to win the wrongdoer, and only when he has exhausted every effort may he abandon it. The object is the gaining of his brother. Only when this is evidently unattainable is all effort to cease.
The power of binding and loosing, which means forbidding and allowing, was granted to Peter (Matthew 16:19) and to the Christian community (Matthew 18:18; John 20:23). It clearly implies the possession of the power to forgive sins. In the case of Peter's power it was exercised when he used the keys of the kingdom of heaven (Matthew 16:19). This consisted in the proclamation of the gospel and especially of the conditions upon which men might enter into relationship with God (Acts 2:38; 10:34 ff). It was not limited to Peter only, but was shared by the other apostles (Matthew 16:19; 18:18). Christ left no fixed rules the observance or non-observance of which would determine whether one is or is not in the kingdom of God. He gave to His disciples principles, and in the application of these principles to the problems of life there had to be the exercise of discriminating judgment. The exercise of this judgment was left to the Christian community (2 Corinthians 2:10). It is limited by the principles which are the basis of the kingdom, but within these principles the voice of the community is supreme. The forgiveness here implied is not the pronouncing of absolution for the sins of individuals, but the determination of courses of conduct and worship which will be acceptable. In doing this its decisions will be ratified in heaven (Westcott on John 20:23).
That there is a close analogy between human and Divine forgiveness is clearly implied (Matthew 5:23, 14; 6:12; Mark 11:25; Luke 6:37; Colossians 1:14; 3:13). God"s forgiveness is conditional upon man's forgiveness of the wrongs done him, not because God forgives grudgingly but because forgiveness alone indicates that disposition of mind which will humbly accept the Divine pardon.
6. Divine and Human Forgiveness: Repentance is a necessary ingredient of the fully developed forgiveness. There is no essential difference between the human and the Divine pardon, though the latter is necessarily more complete. It results in the complete removal of all estrangement and alienation between God and man. It restores completely the relationship which existed prior to the sin. The total removal of the sin as a result of the Divine forgiveness is variously expressed in the Scriptures: "Thou hast cast all my sins behind thy back" (Isaiah 38:17); "Thou wilt cast all their sins into the depths of the sea" (Micah 7:19); "I will forgive their iniquity, and their sin will I remember no more" (Jeremiah 31:34); "I, even I, am he that blotteth out thy transgressions" (Isaiah 43:25); "As far as the east is from the west, so far hath he removed our transgressions from us" (Psalms 103:12). Ideally this same result is attained in human forgiveness, but actually the memory of the sin remains with both parties as a barrier between them, and even when there is a complete restoration of amity the former state of alienation cannot entirely be removed from memory. When God forgives, however, He restores man to the condition of former favor. Release from punishment is involved, though Divine forgiveness is more than this. In most cases the consequences, which in some instances are spoken of as punishment, are not removed, but they lose all penal character and become disciplinary. Nor does the forgiveness remove from human mind the consciousness of sin and the guilt which that involved, but it does remove the mistrust which was the ground of the alienation. Mistrust is changed into trust, and this produces peace of mind (Psalms 32:5-7; Romans 5:1); consciousness of the Divine love and mercy (Psalms 103:2 ff); removes fear of punishment (2 Samuel 12:13); and awakens love to God.
7. Forgiveness and Justification: Paul rarely uses the term "forgiveness," but in its place prefers justification. They are to his understanding practically synonymous (Stevens, Theology of the New Testament, 418). He preferred the latter, however, because it was better fitted to express the idea of secure, present and permanent acceptance in the sight of God. It connoted both a complete and a permanent state of grace. In popular thought forgiveness is not so comprehensive, but in the Biblical sense it means no less than this. It removes all of the guilt and cause of alienation from the past; it assures a state of grace for the present; and promises Divine mercy and aid for the future. Its fullness cannot adequately be conveyed by any one term or formula.
Divine, like human, forgiveness is always contingent upon the fulfillment of conditions. It must be preceded by repentance and a firmly fixed intention not to repeat the offense. In addition to this, one was required to conform to certain legal or formal acts before the assurance of pardon was his. These acts were expressive of the sinner's state of mind. They consisted of certain acts of sacrifice in the pre-Christian times and of baptism during the ministry of John the Baptist (Mark 1:4; Luke 3:3) and under Christ (Acts 2:38; 22:16). These acts are never regarded as in any sense a quid pro quo in return for which the benefit of forgiveness is granted. It is an act of pure grace on God's part, and these acts are required as expressions of the man's attitude toward God. The state of mind required in order to obtain the gift of forgiveness is that to which the Prodigal Son came (Luke 15:17-19), and that of the sinner who went to his house justified rather than the Pharisee (Luke 18:9-14), because he realized that forgiveness was to him an act of pure favor.
There was real and actual forgiveness of sins in the Old Testament times as well as since Christ. Certain passages have been construed to teach that the Law provided only for a passing over or rolling back of sins, and that there was not then an actual forgiveness.
8. Old Testament Teaching: The sacrifices prescribed by the Law were not adequate atonements, so that there was constant necessity of yearly remembrance of sin (Hebrews 10:3; compare Leviticus 16:21). The atonement of Christ is, however, of permanent adequacy, and became retroactive in the sense that it unified in Christ the Divine arrangement for saving mankind in all ages (Hebrews 11:40). "The passing over of the sins done aforetime" (Romans 3:25) does not imply a partial or apparent forgiveness, but means that they were forgiven, though seemingly without adequate recognition on the part of God of their heinous character. In view of God's righteous character men might naturally have expected punishment, but instead the offenders were spared (compare Acts 14:16; 17:30). No expression in the Old Testament suggests any inadequacy of the forgiveness extended to Israel, but on the other hand many passages may be quoted to show how rich and full it was deemed to be (Psalms 103:1-22; Micah 7:19; Isaiah 38:17, Jeremiah 31:34).
9. Limitations of Forgiveness: Two passages seem to limit God's forgiveness. They are Christ's discussion of the unpardonable sin (Matthew 12:31-32; Mark 3:28-30; Luke 12:10), and the one which mentions the sin unto death (1 John 5:16; compare Hebrews 6:4-6). In the former passage there is mentioned a sin which has no forgiveness, and in the latter, one on behalf of which the apostle cannot enjoin prayer that it be forgiven, though he does not prohibit it. In both cases the sin is excluded from the customary forgiveness which is extended to sins of all other classes.
The act of the Pharisees which led Jesus to speak of the unpardonable sin was the attributing of a good deed wrought by Him through the Spirit of God (Matthew 12:28) to Beelzebub. No one could do such a thing unless his moral nature was completely warped. To such a person the fundamental distinctions between good and evil were obliterated. No ordinary appeal could reach him, for to him good seemed evil and evil seemed good. The possibility of winning him back is practically gone; hence, he is beyond the hope of forgiveness, not because God has set an arbitrary line of sinfulness, beyond which His grace of forgiveness will not reach, but because the man has put himself beyond the possibility of attaining to that state of mind which is the essential condition of Divine forgiveness. It is practically certain that John did not have any particular sinful act in mind when he spoke of the sin which is unto death.
See BLASPHEMY.
There is no possible way of determining what specific sin, if any, he refers to. Probably the same principle applies in this case as in that of the unpardonable sin. God's forgiveness is limited solely by the condition that man must accept it in the proper spirit.
There are some passages which seem to imply that forgiveness was the principal Messianic task. This is suggested by the name given to the Messiah during His earthly career (Matthew 1:21), and by the fact that He was the Saviour. The remission of sins was the preparation for the advent of the Messiah (Luke 1:77), and repentance and remission of sins were the prerequisites to a state of preparation for the kingdom.
10. Christ's Power to Forgive Sins: It is not surprising, therefore, that we find Jesus laying claim to the power to forgive sins. This provoked a bitter controversy with the Jews, for it was axiomatic with them that no one could forgive sins but God only (Mark 2:7; Luke 5:21; 7:49). This Jesus did not question, but He would have them infer from His power to forgive sins that He was the possessor of Divine power. Jesus asserted His possession of this power on two occasions only, though it has been insufficiently inferred from John 5:14; 8:11 that He was accustomed to pronounce absolution upon all of those He healed. On one of these occasions He not merely asserted that He possessed the power, but demonstrated it by showing Himself to be the possessor of the Divine gift of healing. The impostor might claim some such intangible power as the authority to forgive sins, but he would never assert the possession of such easily disproved power as the ability to heal the sick. But Jesus claimed both, and based His claim to be the possessor of the former on the demonstration that He possessed the latter. God would not support an impostor, hence, his aid in healing the paralytic proved that Jesus could forgive sins. The multitude accepted this logic and "glorified God, who had given such authority unto men" (Matthew 9:2-9; compare Mark 2:3-12; Luke 5:18-26).
On the other occasion when His possession of this power was under discussion (Luke 7:36-50), He offered no other proof than the forgiven woman's deep gratitude and love. One expression that He uses, however, has raised some discussion as to the relative order in time of her love and forgiveness (Luke 7:47). Did she love because she was forgiven, or vice versa? Manifestly the forgiveness precedes the love, in spite of the fact that Luke 7:47 seems to assert the opposite, for this is the bearing of the parable of the Two Debtors (Luke 7:41-43), and the latter part of Luke 7:47 has the same implication. It is clear that she had previously repented and had been accepted, and the anointing of Jesus was an outpouring of her gratitude. The phrase of Luke 7:47, "for she loved much," is proof of the greatness of her sin rather than a reason why she was forgiven. In both cases where Jesus forgave sins, He did so because the state of mind of the person forgiven showed worthiness of the blessing. To this as a condition of forgiveness there is no exception. Christ's prayer on the cross (Luke 23:34) would not avail to secure the pardon of His murderers without their repentance.
11. The Need of an Atonement: Though forgiveness is on God's part an act of pure grace prompted by His love and mercy, and though He forgives freely all those who comply with the condition of repentance and abandonment of sin, yet this does not dispense with the necessity of an atonement. The parable of the Prodigal Son was spoken to teach the freedom of God's forgiveness and acceptance of returning sinners, and the duty of men to assume the same attitude toward them. This much it teaches, but it fails to set forth entirely God's attitude toward sin. With reference to the sinner God is love and mercy, but with reference to sin He is righteous, and this element of God's nature is no less essential to Him than His love, and must be considered in any effort to set forth completely the doctrine of God's forgiveness of sinners. The atonement of Christ and the many atonements of the Law were manifestations of this phase of God's nature.
12. The New Testament Doctrine of Atonement: The idea of an atonement is fundamental in the teachings of the New Testament (Romans 5:10; 2 Corinthians 5:18-21; Colossians 1:21). It is very clearly implied in such terms as reconciliation and propitiation, and is no less present in pardon, remission and forgiveness. The doctrine of the atonement is not developed by Jesus, but it is strongly hinted at and is unmistakably implied in the language of Matthew 20:28; 26:28; Mark 10:45; Luke 24:46-47. John the Baptist's salute, "Behold, the Lamb of God, that taketh away the sin of the world!" (John 1:29), also implies it. In the writings of the apostles it is repeatedly and clearly affirmed that our forgiveness and reconciliation to God is based upon the death of Christ. "In none other is there salvation" (Acts 4:12); through Him is the redemption (Romans 3:24); God set Him forth to be a propitiation (Romans 3:25); through Him "we have now received the reconciliation" (Romans 5:11); "God was in Christ reconciling the world unto himself" (2 Corinthians 5:19); "Him who knew no sin he made to be sin on our behalf" (2 Corinthians 5:21); and "Christ redeemed us from the curse of the law, having become a curse for us" (Galatians 3:13). Such citations might be greatly multiplied. That which was so perfectly accomplished by the offering of Christ was in an analagous though imperfect way accomplished by the sacrifices required by the Law. It had "a shadow of the good things to come" (Hebrews 10:1).
The unvarying effect of sin is to produce an estrangement between the injurer and the wronged. The nature of God is such and the relationship between Him and man is of such a character that sin brings about an alienation between them. It is this presupposition of an estrangement between them which renders the atonement necessary before forgiveness can be extended to man. This estrangement must be removed, and the alienation be transformed into a reconciliation. In what then does the alienation consist?
The sin of man produces a changed attitude toward each other on the part of both God and man. God holds no personal pique against man because of his sin. The New Testament language is very carefully chosen to avoid any statement which would seem to convey such a conception. Yet God's holy righteousness is such that He cannot be indifferent to sin. His wrath must rest upon the disobedient (John 3:36; Romans 1:18). It is not merely impersonal. It is not enough to say He hates the sin. Man's unrighteousness has not merely alienated him from God, but God also from him. The word "enemies" (echthroi) of Romans 5:10 is passive, and means the object of God's enmity (Sunday, at the place). It was because of this fact that God set forth Christ to be a propitiation to show His righteousness because of the passing over of sins done aforetime (Romans 3:25-26). God's passing over, without inflicting punishment, the sins of pre-Christian times had placed in jeopardy His righteousness; had exposed Him to the implication that He could tolerate sin. God could not be true to Himself while He tolerated such an imputation, and so instead of visiting punishment upon all who sinned--which would have been one way of showing His righteousness--He set forth Christ to death ("in his blood"), and in this way placed Himself beyond the imputation of unrighteousness while it enabled Him to show mercy to sinners. The effect of sin upon man was to estrange him from God, to lead him farther and farther away from his Maker. Each successive sin produced a greater barrier between the two. Now the atonement was designed to remove the cause of this estrangement and restore the former relationship between God and man. This too, it has been observed, is the purpose of forgiveness, so that the atonement finds its completion in forgiveness. It should be noted that the reconciliation originates with God and not with man (Romans 3:25; 2 Corinthians 5:19). God woos man before the latter seeks God. The effect of the atonement on man is to reconcile him, attract him, to God. It shows him God's love for man, and the forgiveness, in that it removes sin completely, takes away the estranging factor between them and so wins man back to God. "We love, because he first loved us." At the same time the atonement is such a complete expression of both the love and the righteousness of God that, while on the one hand it exhibits his yearning for man, on the other it shows that He is not tolerant toward sin. In the atonement of Christ, therefore, is the meeting-place and the reconcilement of God's holy horror of sin and the free bestowal of forgiveness upon penitent believers.
William Charles Morro
Forgo
Forgo - for-go' (from for, negative, and go): Occurs in Ecclesiastes 7:19, as translation of astocheo, which means "to miss the mark," "turn or swerve from." "Forgo not a wise and good wife (the King James Version "woman"); for her grace is above gold," meaning "Turn not away from her"; in Ecclesiastes 8:9, the word is rendered "miss not"; compare 1 Timothy 1:6; 6:21; 2 Timothy 2:18.
Fork
Fork - fork (shelosh qilleshon): This compound word, meaning strictly "three points" or "three prongs," is found only once (1 Samuel 13:21), and doubtless there refers to the agricultural tool now known as the pitchfork. It might, however, also be a weapon.
Form
Form - form (yatsar, to'ar; morphe):
(1) To form is "to fashion," "create," "produce." In the Old Testament it is for the most part the translation of yatsar, "to form," "to fashion" (Genesis 2:7, etc., "Yahweh God formed man of the dust of the ground," etc.); also of chul and chil, "to be twisted" "turned round" "to bring forth (in pain)" (compare Isaiah 13:8; Micah 4:10; Deuteronomy 32:18 the King James Version, "God that formed thee"; Job 26:13 the King James Version; Psalms 90:2, "or ever thou hadst formed the earth" etc.; Proverbs 26:10 the King James Version). In the New Testament we have morphoo, "to form" (Galatians 4:19, "until Christ be formed in you"); plasso, "to form," "to mold" (Romans 9:20, "him that formed it"; 1 Timothy 2:13, "Adam was first formed"; 2 Maccabees 7:23, "the Creator .... who formed the generation of man," the Revised Version (British and American) "fashioned"; 7:22, "that formed the members (diarrhuthmizo)," the Revised Version (British and American) "brought into order").
(2) Form (noun) is used for (a) appearance, mar'eh, "sight," "appearance" (Job 4:16, "I could not discern the form thereof" the Revised Version (British and American) "appearance" with "form" for "image" (temunah) in next sentence); tselem, Aramaic "image" (Daniel 3:19, "The form of his visage was changed"); rew, "form," "likeness" (Daniel 2:31; 3:25, the Revised Version (British and American) "aspect"); to'ar, "visage," "form" (1 Samuel 28:14, "What form is he of?"); (b) the fixed or characteristic form of anything, tabhnith, "model," "form" (Ezekiel 8:3; 10:8, "the form of a hand"; Ezekiel 8:10, "every form of creeping things"); morphe, characteristic form as distinguished from schema, changing fashion (Philippians 2:6, "in the form of God"; Philippians 2:7, "the form of a servant"; less distinctly Mark 16:12, "in another form"); (c) shape, model, pattern, mold, tsurah, "shape," from tsur, "to cut or carve" (Ezekiel 43:11, ter, "the form of the house," etc.); mishpat, "rule" (2 Chronicles 4:7 the King James Version); tupos, "type," "impress" (Romans 6:17, the Revised Version, margin "pattern"); hupotuposis, "outline," pattern (2 Timothy 1:13, the Revised Version (British and American) "pattern"); morphosis, "form," "appearance" (Romans 2:20, "the form of knowledge"); (d) orderly arrangement, giving shape or form (Genesis 1:2; Jeremiah 4:23, the earth was "without form," tohu, the Revised Version (British and American) "waste"; Wisdom of Solomon 11:17, amorphos); "form of speech" (2 Samuel 14:20, aspect, panim, "face," the Revised Version (British and American) "to change the face of the matter"); as giving comeliness or beauty, to'ar (Isaiah 52:14; 53:2, "He hath no form nor comeliness"; compare Genesis 29:17; 39:6, etc.; Wisdom of Solomon 15:5, "desiring the form (eidos) of a dead image," the Revised Version (British and American) "the breathless form"); (e) Show, without substance, morphosis, "form" (2 Timothy 3:5, "holding a form of godliness").
ARV has "didst form" for "hast possessed" (Psalms 139:13, so the English Revised Version, margin; both have "formed" for "made" (Psalms 104:26), the American Standard Revised Version for "framed" twice (Isaiah 29:16); both for "formed thee," "gave birth" (Deuteronomy 32:18); "pierced" (Job 26:13); "woundeth" (Proverbs 26:10); "fastened" (Isaiah 44:10); for "are formed from" (Job 26:5), "tremble"; for "their form" (2 Chronicles 4:7), "the ordinance concerning them"; "form" for "similitude" (Numbers 12:8; Deuteronomy 4:12, 15); for "size" (1 Kings 6:25; 7:37); for "shape" (Luke 3:22; John 5:37); "in the form" for "similitude" (Deuteronomy 4:16); for "or the like" (Deuteronomy 4:23, 15); the American Standard Revised Version "(beholding) thy form" for "thy likeness" (Psalms 17:15, the English Revised Version, margin); "every form" for "all appearance" (1 Thessalonians 5:22; so the English Revised Version, margin "appearance").
W. L. Walker
Former
Former - for'-mer: The word in the sense of "maker," "framer," occurs only in Jeremiah 51:19, "He is the former (from yatsar, "to form") of all things." The adjective, in the sense of preceding in the order of time, is commonly in Hob the translation of ri'shon, "first," "foremost" (Genesis 40:13; Numbers 21:26; Deuteronomy 24:4, etc.); in Greek of proteros (Ephesians 4:22; Hebrews 10:32; 1 Peter 1:14); and in two cases (Acts 1:1; Revelation 21:4) of protos, where the Revised Version (British and American) has (in Acts in the margin) "the first." As denoting place or position the word occurs in the Old Testament in Zechariah 14:8, "the former sea" as translation of qadhmoni, "in front," where the Revised Version (British and American) has "eastern," i.e. the Dead Sea, in contrast with the Mediterranean, or western sea (compare Ezekiel 47:18; Joel 2:20). For "former iniquities" (Psalms 79:8) the Revised Version (British and American) has simply "the iniquities"; Other changes may be seen in Numbers 6:12; Isaiah 65:7; Ezekiel 36:11; Micah 4:8; Haggai 2:3.
W. L. Walker
Fornication
Fornication - for-ni-ka'-shun.
See CRIMES .
Forswear
Forswear - for-swar'.
See CRIMES .
Forth
Forth - forth: "Forth," adverb (from "for"), signifies movement (1) forward, (2) out of, (3) beyond a certain boundary. In a few instances in the Old Testament it is the translation of the preposition `al, properly "above," "upon" (2 Kings 11:15; 2 Chronicles 23:14; Amos 7:17 the King James Version), and of chuts, "without" (Genesis 39:13; Judges 19:25). "Forth" is often used as an expletive of various verbs, as "break (forth)," "bring (forth)," "call (forth)," etc. In the Gospel of John it is the translation of exo, "without," as "Lazarus, come forth" (Judges 11:40; so Judges 15:6; 19:4 the King James Version, etc.; also Acts 5:34; 9:40). "Stand forth" in Mark 3:3 is the translation of egeire eis to meson, margin "Arise into the midst." the Revised Version (British and American) has a great many changes, frequently substituting "out," "away," "abroad," etc.; "forth from" for "out of" (Job 41:21; Isaiah 45:23); "spread forth" for "stretched out" (Psalms 44:20; 88:9; 136:6), etc. In Colossians 1:6, for "bringeth forth fruit" the Revised Version (British and American) reads "bearing fruit."
W. L. Walker
Fortification; Fort; Fortified Cities; Fortress
Fortification; Fort; Fortified Cities; Fortress - for-ti-fi-ka'-shun (including):
I. IN RECENT EXCAVATIONS
1. Excavation of Tells
2. Sites
3. Primitive Character
4. Walls
5. Towers
6. Acropolis or Castle
7. Masonry
8. Gates
9. Water Supply
II. IN BIBLICAL HISTORY
1. Before the Monarchy
2. In the Period of the Monarchy
3. In the Period of the Return
III. IN THE PSALMS AND THE PROPHETS
1. The Psalms
2. The Prophets
IV. IN THE NEW TESTAMENT
1. In Paul's Epistles
2. In the Acts of the Apostles
3. In the Gospel History
LITERATURE
Has a number of words representing its various elements and aspects:
(1) mibhtsar, is the term generally rendered "fenced" or "defenced city." In both the King James Version and the Revised Version (British and American) of Isa and Jer we find for the most part the more formal "defenced city." It is found by itself (Isaiah 17:3); with `ir, "city" (1 Samuel 6:18; 2 Kings 3:19; plural `are mibhtsar, "fenced (the American Standard Revised Version "fortified") cities," Numbers 32:17); with tsor, "Tyre" (Joshua 19:29; 2 Samuel 24:7, where it is rendered "stronghold"). (2) misgabh, "high fort" (Isaiah 25:12; Jeremiah 48:1 the Revised Version, margin; Psalms 9:9, and many other places in the Pss). (3) ma`oz, "fortress," "stronghold" (Judges 6:26; Psalms 31:2; Daniel 11:39). (4) metsudhah, "fort" the King James Version, "stronghold" the Revised Version (British and American) (2 Samuel 5:9, 17). (5) metsurah, "fort" (Isaiah 29:3 the King James Version; plural the Revised Version (British and American) "siege works"). (6) mutstsabh (Isaiah 29:3, "fort" the English Revised Version, "mount" the King James Version, "posted troops" the American Standard Revised Version). (7) dayeq, "fort" (for the siege of a city, the wall of circumvallation cast up by the besiegers, 2 Kings 25:1; Jeremiah 52:4; Ezekiel 4:2; 17:17; 21:22; 26:8). (8) matsor, "fortress" (Jeremiah 10:17 margin, wall of circumvallation: Habakkuk 2:1, "tower" the King James Version, "fortress" the Revised Version, margin; Zechariah 9:3). (9) birah, "palace" the King James Version, "castle" the Revised Version (British and American) (Nehemiah 2:8; 7:2). Birah Grecized is baris, which has the double meaning of "palace" and "fortress." Nehemiah's "castle" figures largely in the books of Maccabees and in Josephus, and is the Castle of Antonia of the Acts of the Apostles. (10) ochuroma (2 Corinthians 10:4, its only occurrence in the New Testament though it is the chief equivalent of mibhtsar in the Septuagint). In this connection it is to be noted that chomah, is Hebrew for "wall," Greek teichos; chel or cheyl, is Hebrew for the "ditch," or "rampart," or "bastion" of a fortress; mighdal, "tower"; pinnah plural pinnoth, "corner towers."
Fortified Places:
From the very beginning of their history as a nation the Israelites were acquainted with fortified cities. The report of cities "great and fortified up to heaven," inhabited by the sons of Anak, by Amalekites, Hittites, Jebusites, Amorites and Canaanites, struck terror into the hearts of the Israelites in the wilderness, and called forth murmurings from them on their way to Canaan (Numbers 13:28 ff; Deuteronomy 1:28). Not that these cities were at all of the extent or population of modern cities, or of Nineveh, Babylon and Memphis of old. But to a people who were as yet little better than a horde of fugitives accustomed to the simple camp life of the wilderness and unacquainted with appliances for siege and assault, the prospect of scaling the walls and conquering the inhabitants was appalling. The cities of the Canaanites were already old when Joshua led the Israelites to the conquest of the land. Not a little of their history has become known to us, and the character of their defensive works has been disclosed by Palestinian excavation in recent years.
I. In Recent Excavations. 1. Excavation of Tells: It has been largely to the tells, or mounds of buried cities, chiefly in the southwest of the land, that exploration has been directed. The Palestine Exploration Fund, drawing its resources from Great Britain and also from America, was the first, and has all along been the foremost, in the work of excavation. Through the labors of Professor Flinders Petrie at Tell el-Hesy; of Dr. F. J. Bliss, and Professor Stewart Macalister at Tell Zakariyah, Tell ec-Safi, Tell ej-Judeideh, Tell Sandahannah, and more recently of Professor Macalister at Gezer, the Fund has added largely to our knowledge of the fenced cities of Canaan. The work of Sir Charles Warren, Sir Charles W. Wilson, Colonel Conder and other explorers at Jerusalem under the same auspices has been of great value for illustrating the defensive works of a later time. Germany and Austria have not been behind. The excavation, first, of Tell Ta'anek in the Plain of Esdraelon, and, at the present time (1911), of Jericho by Professor E. Sellin, formerly of Vienna, now of Rostock; and of Tell el-Mutesellim, the ancient Megiddo, by Gottlieb Schumacher, has yielded results of the highest importance. Since 1908 an American expedition from Harvard University, first under Schumacher and now under Dr. Reisner, who had previously excavated at the Pyramids and other places in Egypt, has explored with remarkable results the site of the capital of the Northern Kingdom, Samaria. Excavations have also been conducted by the German Orient Committee at Sinjerli which have thrown a flood of light upon the archaeology of Northern Syria and especially upon the wonderful Hittite people. The memoirs and reports of these excavations have furnished abundance of material for tracing the evolution and understanding the anatomy of the tell. They usefully supplement the Scripture narratives, and confirm them in many particulars.
2. Sites: These cities of the primitive inhabitants of Canaan occupied sites easily capable of defense. They were built either upon a projecting spur of a mountain ridge, like Gezer, Megiddo, Tell ec-Safi (believed to be the ancient Gath) and primitive Jerusalem, or upon an isolated eminence in the plain like Tell el-Hesy (Lachish) or Taanach. Compared with modern cities the area was small--in the case of Gezer about a quarter of a mile square, Lachish 15 acres, Megiddo and Taanach 12 to 13 acres. A sufficient water supply within easy reach was an essential feature. Speaking of Gezer, Professor Macalister says: "Water, the first necessity of life, was in abundance. The three primitive modes of livelihood--hunting, pasturing, and agriculture--could be practiced here better than in many places. Further, for defense--another prime necessity in early days--the hill is admirably fitted. It is steep and not easy to climb; and being fairly high it commands a wide prospect, so that the approach of enemies can be seen and prepared for" (Bible Side-Lights from Gezer, 25,26).
3. Primitive Character: Their history goes back in most cases to a very remote antiquity. "It cannot have been much later than 3000 BC," says Professor Macalister regarding Gezer, "when a primitive race of men first realized that the bare rocky hill (as it then was) would be a suitable dwelling-place. This tribe was a cave-dwelling race" (as above; and PEFS, 1904, 311 ff). The primitive race had occupied the hill perhaps five hundred years when the Canaanites drove them out, as they in turn were driven out by the Israelites. But the nature of their original habitations, the earliest relics of their social life, and what can be gathered of their religious rites all bear witness to a remote antiquity. From the mound of Tell el-Hesy, now almost certainly identified with the site of Lachish, eleven cities, one above the other have been disinterred, the eleventh or highest having nine cities between itself and the first Amorite buildings reared upon the original bluff. This lowest city is believed to go back some 2000 years BC, Professor Flinders Petrie having dated the successive cities by means of the pottery found in the strata of the mound. One of the eleven cities, possibly the fourth from the bottom, was that of Lachish, which fell a prey to Joshua (Joshua 10:32), the walls of which, built of crude brick and 10-12 ft. in thickness, are a witness to its character as a fenced city (Bliss, A Mound of Many Cities, chapter iv).
4. Walls: While the site of the Canaanite city was chosen for its natural strength, the first settlers soon felt the need of some fortification. At Sinjerli the excavators have been able to trace the general growth of the site from a group of shepherds' huts into a walled town. The earliest fortification attempted was a rampart of earth following the natural contour of the hill (PEFS, 1903, 113). Within some such enclosing wall, houses were built and the inhabitants lived and pursued their avocations safely. The primitive earthbank in the case of Gezer was in course of time replaced first by an inner and then by an outer wall in succession. The outer wall when it was added to strengthen the inner was the chel, rendered in the English version "bulwark" (Isaiah 26:1) or "rampart" (Nahum 3:8, where the waters of the Nile served the same purpose). Professor Macalister estimates that the inner wall of Gezer had fallen into disuse and ruin by about 1450 BC and that it was the outer that saw the conquest of Canaan by the Israelites. "Even in its present ruined form," says Professor Macalister, "the outer city wall is an imposing structure. In places it still stands to a height of from 10 to 14 ft., and these can hardly be regarded as being much more than the underground foundations. The outer face of the city wall, towering above the hill on which the city was built, may well have seemed impregnable to the messengers of Moses" (Bible Side-Lights, 142). The walls of a later time, as we learn from Assyrian representations, were provided with battlements, very often crenellated, and "thy pinnacles of rubies" (Isaiah 54:12, the Revised Version (British and American), the Revised Version, margin "windows") may refer to them. For the purpose of strengthening the walls, especially at the least defensible points, revetments or facings of stone or kiln-burnt bricks were sometimes added. Even these again would be rendered less assailable by a trench (chel) serving to cut off a fortress from adjacent level or sloping ground, as may still be seen outside the North wall of Jerusalem, and many parts ofthe walls of Constantinople.
5. Towers: Towers were sometimes built at the corners or at points on the wall where attack was to be apprehended (Zephaniah 1:16; 2 Chronicles 14:7). Such towers have been disclosed on the crest of the hill at Tell Zakariyah. At Gezer 30 towers were found round the outer wall. On the walls of Sinjerli there rose no fewer than 800 towers (Garstang, Land of the Hittites, 273). On the evidence of the excavations at this ancient Hittite site we gather that the cities about the time of the entrance of the Israelites into Canaan "were already surrounded by masoned walls, supported by numerous external towers, and entered through gateways barred by a pair of double doors and guarded by wing towers on either hand" (Land of the Hittites, 367). For illustrations, see CITY.
6. Acropolis or Castle: Every one of these ancient cities had an inner fortress which would be an internal means of protection, and the last refuge of the defenders in extremity. At Tell Zakariyah the acropolis wall has been traced, and its shape has been found to be conditioned by the contours of the hill on which it stood. In an old Hittite settlement a fortress has been found rectangular in shape and supported by an outer and lower wall at a distance of 12 to 30 yds. (Land of the Hittites, 162). There is evidence that the mound or bluff originally occupied remained the fortress or acropolis of the city when it spread out over a larger area, and this seems to have been the case for some time at least with the Jebusite fort taken by David and made the capital of the kingdom. At Sinjerli, while there was a wall surrounding the whole township, there was an outer as well as an inner defensive wall to the citadel. Upon this citadel were found palaces from which the Assyrian king, Tiglath-pileser I, copied the plan of a Hittite palace, called in Assyrian Hilani.
7. Masonry: The excavations enable us to see the progress of the art of fortification from very primitive beginnings. Crude brick and rough stone-work were the materials of the earliest walls. They are usually found of uncoursed masonry in which the large stones are undressed field boulders. The facings of stone and the joints in walls were often packed with pebbles or with limestone chippings, the stones themselves being more or less roughly trimmed and dressed to shape by a hammer. Corner-stones are found in the towers showing marks of the chisel, but it is not till well on in the Hebrew period that stones are found with bosses and marginal drafting. At Zakariyah the walls of the acropolis were of rubble laid in mud, mixed with straw without lime, and they contained some well-worked stones, irregularly intermingled with field stones of various sizes. At a later time mortar was used to cover the walls and give greater strength and support. But the clay used for the purpose was apt to crack unless it was given consistency by treading with the feet and mixing with water. Thus we read of a wall daubed with untempered mortar (Ezekiel 13:10-16; 22:28; compare Nahum 3:14). In the masonry of the Hittite fortress (see (6) above) the masonry of the inner wall is rough, dry stonewalling, while the outer is built of stones roughly pentagonal in shape, irregular in size, fitted to one another and laid without mortar, somewhat like the Cyclopean walls of the earliest periods of Greek history.
See GEZER.
8. Gates: The gates of the fenced cities of Canaan may not have had the social importance which the city gate came to possess in later times, but they were an important element in the defensive works of a city. They were as few as possible, so as to give only the necessary ingress and egress. The gate of Jericho was shut and secured at nightfall (Joshua 2:5). The gate of Gaza had two leaves which were not hinged to the two gate-posts, but turned on pins moving in sockets in the sill and lintel, the bar stretching between the two posts and let into them to secure the gate (Judges 16:3, with Moore's notes). The hundred gates of Babylon, according to Herodotus, were all of brass (i.179); and Yahweh promises to Cyrus to break in pieces the doors of brass and to cut in sunder the bars of iron (Isaiah 45:2). That the bars were sometimes of wood is clear from what is said of the bars of Nineveh (Nab 3:13). To protect the gate it was supplied with towers. Uzziah built towers in Jerusalem at the corner gate and at the valley gate, and fortilled them (2 Chronicles 26:9). In the inner wall of Gezer, to which reference has been made, a gate of very remarkable structure has been found. The wall is of stone, but the gateway consists of a passage between two solid towers of brick. The passage is 9 ft. wide and 42 ft. long, roughly paved with stones. Stone slabs on each side of the passageway bear traces of fire, and the absence of any wooden barrier may be due to a conflagration at the capture of the city. The towers remain standing and rise to a total height of about 16 ft. In later times watchmen were set on the tower over the gate to descry the approach of friend or foe or messenger (2 Samuel 18:24 ff), and the tower had chambers in it which might be occupied by visitors or by a guard. For the more general purposes see GATE.
9. Water Supply: One of the essential requisites of the primitive Canaanite fortress was a supply of water. At Gezer a copious spring within easy reach was available. Tell el-Hesy commands the only springs in that region (A Mound of Many Cities, 16). It is a strong point in favor of the modern theory of the ridge of Ophel being the site of Zion or David's town that the Virgin's Fountain, the only perennial spring in the whole circuit of Jerusalem, was close to it, and would have been an inducement to the Jebusites to build their fortress there. In the sites that have been excavated, cisterns, sometimes vaulted over and with steps down into them, have been constantly found. Traces have also been observed of concealed passages or tunnels by which access has been obtained to the nearest spring. Some such explanation has been given of the "gutter" (2 Samuel 5:8 the King James Version, "watercourse" the Revised Version (British and American)), by which Joab obtained access to the fortress of Jebus and enabled David to capture it (1 Chronicles 11:6; compare Vincent, Canaan d'apres l'exploration recente, 1 Chronicles 26:1-32). During an investment of a fortified city by an enemy, it was a point in strategy for the inhabitants to secure the fountain and to divert or conceal the stream flowing from it so that the besiegers might be left without a water supply (2 Kings 3:19, 25; 2 Chronicles 32:3; compare also 2 Samuel 12:26-27, Century Bible, Kennedy's note).
II. In Biblical History. 1. Before the Monarchy: On the passage of the Jordan the Israelites found in Jericho a walled city of great strength barring their progress. The excavations recently made have disclosed the common features of Canaanite fortresses--an outer wall, surrounding the entire area, 6 1/2 ft. thick, a citadel and protecting walls of hardly less substantial workmanship. Nearby also is the essential spring to furnish the water supply. Within the citadel were found the walls and rooms of Canaanite houses, and in many cases remains of infants buried in jars under the clay floors (Driver, Modern Research as Illustrating the Bible, 91 ff). These examples of "foundation sacrifices" with which the excavations at Gezer have made us familiar give point to the account of the resettlement of the city in the days of Ahab, when Hiel the Bethelite rebuilt Jericho, laying the foundation thereof with the loss of Abiram, his firstborn, and setting up the gates thereof with the loss of his youngest son Segub (1 Kings 16:34).
See CORNER-STONE; CANAAN.
In the Book of Jdg we read of the strong tower, or citadel, of Thebez, into which the inhabitants had crowded and to which Abimelech was setting fire when a woman upon the wall hurled a millstone upon him and broke his skull (Judges 9:51 f). It does not appear that at this period the Israelites were in possession of the strongholds of the land, for when the Philistines overran the country, they had no fortresses to flee to, but "did hide themselves in caves, and in thickets, and in rocks, and in coverts, and in pits" (1 Samuel 13:6).
2. In the Period of the Monarchy: When David captured the Jebusite fortress (2 Samuel 5:6 ff) and transferred his capital from Hebron to Jerusalem, a new era of independence and even of conquest began. The natural strength of David's town, with such fortification as had been added, made it impregnable to any Philistine or Syrian foe, and one of the strongest fortresses in Western Asia.
Although Solomon was a man of peace, he included among the great buildings which he executed fortresses and works of defense. He built the wall of Jerusalem round about. He built Millo (called Akra ("citadel") in the Septuagint), and closed the breaches of the city of David, so that there might be no vulnerable point found in the defenses of the city (1 Kings 9:15). This fortification is represented in Septuagint, which has here an addition to the Massoretic Text, as securing the complete subjection of the original inhabitants who remained. Solomon also built Hazor to watch Damascus, Megiddo to guard the plain of Jezreel, and Gezer overlooking the maritime plain, his work being one of refortification rather than of building from the foundation. He fortified also Beth-horon, Upper and Nether, to block the way against Philistine invasion. The store cities, and cities to accommodate his chariots and horses, were also part of his military system (1 Kings 9:18 ff).
The disruption of the kingdoms, and the jealousy and hostility that followed between Judah and Israel, necessitated fresh undertakings of fortification, on the part of both kingdoms. Rehoboam dwelt in Jerusalem, and built cities for defense in Judah. He fortified the strongholds and provisioned them and stored arms within them in case of siege (2 Chronicles 11:5 ff). One of Jeroboam's first acts on ascending the throne was to build the two fortresses, Shechem to guard Mr. Ephraim, and Penuel to protect Gilead (1 Kings 12:25 f). Baasha later pushed his frontier within a few miles of Jerusalem, fortifying Ramah to overawe Asa in his very capital. The long war which lasted through the reigns of Jeroboam, Nadab, Baasha and Elah, kings of Israel, was largely a war of sieges, one of them, that of Gibbethon, having apparently lasted 27 years (1 Kings 15:27, compared with 1 Kings 16:15 ff).
With Omri there arose in Israel a powerful ruler whose name is mentioned with respect in the Assyrian monuments, which designate the kingdom of Israel Mat Bit Khumri, "the land of the house of Omri." He was the builder of Samaria which remained the capital of the Northern Kingdom till its fall in 722 BC. In excavations but recently carried on by the archaeological expedition of Harvard University, the walls of Omri's palace and fortress were laid bare, giving an impression of the great strength of the place.
While Solomon built the wall of Jerusalem, we read that Uzziah built towers at the corner gate, and at the valley gate, and at the turning of the wall, and fortified them (2 Chronicles 26:9). Jotham his son, continued his father's labors in the further fortification of the city (2 Chronicles 27:3, 1). Hezekiah had good reason to add still further to the strength of the city, seeing that he had to bear the brunt of Sennacherib's expedition to the west. Sennacherib boasts that of Hezekiah's fortified towns, he captured 46, with innumerable fortresses besides (Schrader, Schrader, The Cuneiform Inscriptions and the Old Testament, I, 286), but he cannot tell that Jerusalem was among them, for it came through the ordeal unscathed. In the reign of Manasseh Jerusalem was captured and the king himself carried away to Nineveh, but on his repentance he was restored to the throne and set himself to strengthen the fortifications of the city (2 Chronicles 33:14). The city was unable, however, to hold out against Nebuchadrezzar and his captains; for it was taken in 597 BC, and King Jehoiachin and the flower of the population were deported to Babylon. After a siege of two years it was again taken in 586 BC, and temple and city were destroyed, and the walls razed to the ground.
3. In the Period of the Return: The patriotic labor of Nehemiah in the rebuilding of the wall of Jerusalem belongs properly to the history of the city (see JERUSALEM). In the Maccabean struggle, the Akra (1 Maccabees 1:33; 3:45, etc.), the citadel, was long held by a Syrian garrison, and was in the end delivered up to the high priest by Demetrius (1 Maccabees 10:32). Notable also still later was the castle of Antonia (Acts 22:24) on the site of the earlier castle of Nehemiah's day (Nehemiah 2:8; 7:2).
III. In the Psalms and the Prophets. 1. The Psalms
Under the image of a fortress, or mountain fastness, inaccessible to any common foot, where there is perfect safety from enemies and persecutors, the Psalmist delights to express his confidence in God. Yahweh, in virtue of His righteous judgments, is a high tower to the downtrodden, a place of refuge and security (misgabh) to those who are in trouble (Psalms 9:9). When he exults in the strength of God who has given him deliverance, he multiplies words to utter his confidence: "I love Thee, O Yahweh, my strength. Yahweh is my rock, and my fortress (metsudhah), .... my God .... my high tower (misgabh)" (Psalms 18:1-2). Thirteen times in the Psalms we find this word: Psalms 9:9; 18:2; 7, 11; Psalms 59:9, 16-17 (where the King James Version translates "defence" and the Revised Version (British and American) "high tower"), etc. Elsewhere metsudhah is employed (Psalms 31:2; literally, "house of fortresses"; Psalms 91:2; 144:2). If we were at liberty to accept such psalms as Psalms 18:1-50 and Psalms 59:1-17 as Davidic, the appropriateness of them to the circumstances of the Shepherd King when persecuted by Saul, taking refuge in the cave of Adullam and enduring the perils and anxieties of an outlaw's life, would at once be apparent.
2. The Prophets: Although Jeremiah has been called the weeping prophet, yet for the fearless fulfillment of his commission to a gainsaying people, God made him "a fortified city (`ir mibhtsar), and an iron pillar, and brazen walls" (Jeremiah 1:18; compare Jeremiah 6:27; 15:20). Hosea in the Northern Kingdom predicted the destruction of its "fortresses" (mibhtsar) by the invading Assyrians (Jeremiah 10:14; compare Jeremiah 8:14). The prophets in proclaiming God's message to their day addressed themselves not only to Israel and Judah, but also to those great world-powers with which the Hebrew people had relations. In the oracles of the prophets to the nations--to Egypt, Babylon, Assyria, Syria, Edom, and others--we obtain glimpses of great and fortified cities like No-amon (Thebes), Babylon, Nineveh, Damascus, whose natural defenses and added fortifications did not save them from capture and destruction. And the teaching of the prophets for the comfort of Israel and Judah is that Yahweh was a better defense to them than the great rivers of Assyria and Egypt were to those nations. When Nineveh was at the height of her pride, fierceness and worldly glory, Nahum asks her: "Art thou better than No-amon (Thebes of Egypt), that was situate among the rivers, that had the waters round about her; whose rampart (chel) was the sea (the Nile), and her wall (chomah) was of the sea?" (Nahum 3:8). Of Nineveh itself we know that it was protected, not only by walls and fortresses of great strength, but also by canals and streams drawn round the city. Yet Nahum declares in his sublime apostrophe: "All thy fortresses shall be like figtrees with the first-ripe figs: if they be shaken, they fall into the mouth of the eater" (Nahum 3:12). Babylon had walls whose strength and height, as described by Herodotus and other historians, were fabulous. Its great monarch Nebuchadrezzar was in his day the greatest ruler of the East, and Sir Henry Layard has told that scarcely a brick unearthed in the mounds of the great Babylonian plain was without his name. Yet when the day of reckoning came, the wall, said to be mountain-high, and 80 ft. thick, with its moat so broad that an arrow could not be shot over it, and all its elaborate works of defense, were as if they had not been; it surrendered to Cyrus without a blow being struck. It is in the visions of the prophets, in the universal peace which is to accompany the restoration of Israel, that we hear of "them that are at rest, that dwell securely, all of them dwelling without walls, and having neither bars nor gates" (Ezekiel 38:11). "In that day shall this song be sung in the land of Judah: We have a strong city; salvation will he appoint for walls and bulwarks" (chel) (Isaiah 26:1). "Violence shall no more be heard in thy land, desolation nor destruction within thy borders; but thou shalt call thy walls Salvation, and thy gates Praise" (Isaiah 60:18). Building of fenced cities, with riding upon horses and military preparation, was a note of the false prophet, who urged alliances with foreign powers such as Assyria and Egypt, anal relied too much upon the material resources of the nation. The true prophet realized that the strength of the nation lay in God and urged the people to put their trust in Him (Hosea 8:14). "Jerusalem," says Zechariah in the days of the Return, "shall be inhabited as villages without walls, by reason of the multitude of men and cattle therein. For I, saith Yahweh, will be unto her a wall of fire round about, and I will be the glory in the midst of her" (Hosea 2:4-5; compare Hosea 8:4-5).
IV. In the New Testament. 1. In Paul's Epistles: In a well-known passage (2 Corinthians 10:3-5), Paul, as he often does, draws upon his knowledge of Roman methods of warfare, and introduces for the enforcement of great spiritual lessons the pulling down of "strong-holds" as the ultimate object of every campaign. The word employed (ochuromata) is the Greek equivalent of the Hebrew word commonly rendered "fortress" (mibhtsar). "The `strongholds' are the rock forts, such as those which once bristled along the coast of his native Cilicia and of which he must often have heard when his father told him how they were `pulled down' by the Romans in their wars against the pirates. Those `high things that exalt themselves'--those high eminences of the pride of Nature--occupied in force by hostile troops--had been a familiar experience in many wars throughout Asia Minor, while one of the grandest of all was the Acropolis that towered over Corinth" (Dean Howson, The Metaphors of Paul, 34 f).
2. In the Acts of the Apostles: From the stairs of the Castle of Antonia, Paul, by leave of Claudius Lysias, the commandant of the garrison at Jerusalem, in whose charge he was, addressed the excited crowd and told the story of his conversion. Antonia was the quarters, then, as it was in the time of our Lord, of the Roman garrison, which occupied the Jewish capital (Acts 21:37; John 18:28); and the same site is to this day covered with a Turkish barracks.
3. In the Gospel History: Although it is not mentioned by name, the gloomy fortress of Macherus on the East of the Dead Sea is believed to have been the scene of the imprisonment and murder of John the Baptist. The description of it given by Josephus (BJ, VII, vi, 1) shows it to have been a place of immense strength. "It was quite necessary that that fortress should be demolished lest it might draw away many into rebellion because of its strength; for the nature of the place was very capable of affording sure hope of safety to those who held it, and delay and fear to those who attacked it. For what was defended by a fort was itself a rocky hill, rising to a very great height, which circumstance alone made it very difficult to capture it. It was also so contrived by Nature that it could not easily be approached; for it is entrenched by ravines on all sides, so deep that the eye cannot reach their bottoms, nor are they easy to cross over, and it is quite impossible to fill them up with earth." Macherus, like the Herodium, Jotapata, Masada, figured largely in the tragic scenes of the Jewish War so graphically described by Josephus
LITERATURE.
Bliss and Macalister, Excavations in Palestine; Bliss, A Mound of Many Cities; Macalister, Bible Side-Lights from Mound of Gezer; PEFS for 1903-6, referring to Gezer; Driver, Modern Research as Illustrating the Bible; Vincent, Canaan d'apres l'exploration recente; Billerbeck, Der Festungsbau im alten Orient.
T. Nicol.
Fortunatus
Fortunatus - for-tu-na'-tus (Phortounatos): A Roman proper name turned into Gr; same as Latin adjective fortunatus, meaning "blest," or "fortunate." Found only once in the Bible (1 Corinthians 16:17). Fortunatus, with Stephanas and Achaicus, was an amabassador of the Corinthian church, whose presence at Ephesus refreshed the spirit of the apostle Paul.