History of the Reformation, vol. 3

Chapter 7

Divisions—The Lord’s Supper—Two Extremes—Hoen’s Discovery—Carlstadt—Luther—Mysticism of the Anabaptists—Carlstadt at Orlamund—Luther’s Mission—Interview at Table—The Conference of Orlamund—Carlstadt banished

While the Roman party was everywhere drawing the sword against the Reformation, this work underwent new developments. It is not at Zurich or at Geneva, but in Wittenberg, the focus of the Lutheran revival, that we should look for the commencement of that reformed Church, of which Calvin became the chief doctor. These two great families had slept in the same cradle. Union ought in like manner to have crowned their mature age. But when the question of the Lord’s Supper was once started, Luther violently rejected the reformed element, and bound himself and his Church in an exclusive Lutheranism. The vexation he felt at this rival doctrine caused him to lose much of his natural kindness of disposition, and aroused in him a mistrust, an habitual discontent and irritation, to which he had hitherto been a stranger. HRSCV3 368.5

The controversy broke out between the two old friends, the two champions who had fought side by side at Leipsic against Rome,—between Carlstadt and Luther. In each of them their attachment to contrary doctrines originated in a turn of mind that merits our esteem. In fact, there are two extremes in questions of religion; the one materializes, the other spiritualizes everything. The former of these two extremes is that of Rome; the latter, of the Mystics. Religion, like man himself, is compounded of body and soul; the pure idealists as well as the materialists, in religious views no less than in philosophical systems, are equally mistaken. HRSCV3 369.1

Such is the great question hidden under the discussion about the Lord’s Supper. While on the superficial glance we see nothing but a trivial dispute about words, a deeper observation discloses to us one of the most important controversies that can occupy the human mind. HRSCV3 369.2

Here the reformers divide into two parties; but each carries away with it a portion of the truth. Luther and his followers intend opposing an exaggerated spiritualism; Carlstadt and the reformed attack a hateful materialism. Each of them arraigns the error which is in his view appears the most fatal, and, in assailing it, possibly goes beyond the truth. But this is of no importance; each of them is true in his general tendency, and although belonging to two different hosts, these two illustrious teachers both take their stand under one common banner,—that of Jesus Christ, who alone is Truth in its infinite extent. HRSCV3 369.3

Carlstadt thought that nothing could be more injurious to real piety than confidence in outward ceremonies and in a certain magical influence of the sacraments. The outward participation in the Lord’s Supper, according to Rome, was sufficient for salvation, and this principle had materialized religion. Carlstadt saw no better way of restoring its spirituality than by denying all presence of Christ’s body: and he taught that this holy feast was to believers simply a pledge of their redemption. HRSCV3 369.4

Did Carlstadt arrive at these opinions unaided? No: all things are bound together in the Church; and the historical filiation of the reformed doctrine, so long overlooked, now appears clearly established. Unquestionably we cannot fail to see in this doctrine the sentiments of several of the Fathers; but if we search in the long chain of ages for the link which more immediately connects that of Carlstadt and the Swiss reformers, we shall find it in John Wessel, the most illustrious doctor of the fifteenth century. HRSCV3 369.5

A christian lawyer of Holland, Cornelius Hoen (Honius), a friend of Erasmus, and who had been thrown into prison in 1523 for his attachment to the Gospel, found among the papers of James Hoek, dean of Naeldwik, a great friend of Wessel, several treatises by this illustrious doctor touching the Lord’s Supper. Hoen, convinced of the truth of the spiritual sense ascribed by Wessel to this sacrament, thought it his duty to communicate to the reformers these papers written by his fellow-countryman. He therefore transmitted them to two of his friends, John Rhodius, president of the brethren of the Common-life at Utrecht, and George Sagarus or Saganus, together with a letter on the same subject, and desired them to lay all of them before Luther. HRSCV3 369.6

About the close of the year 1520, the two Dutchmen arrived at Wittenberg, where they seem to have been favorably received by Carlstadt from the first moment; while Luther, as was his custom, invited these foreign friends to meet some of his colleagues at dinner. The conversation naturally fell on the treasures these Netherlanders had brought with them, and particularly on the writings of Wessel concerning the Lord’s Supper. HRSCV3 369.7

Rhodius invited Luther to receive the doctrine that the great doctor of the fifteenth century had so clearly set forth, and Carlstadt entreated his friend to acknowledge the spiritual signification of the Eucharist, and even to write against the carnal eating of Christ’s body. Luther shook his head and refused, upon which Carlstadt exclaimed warmly: “Well, then, if you will not do it, I will, although far less fitted than yourself.” Such was the beginning of the division that afterwards occurred between these two colleagues. The two Netherlanders, being rejected in Saxony, resolved to turn their steps towards Switzerland, where we shall meet with them again. HRSCV3 369.8

Luther henceforward took a diametrically opposite direction. At first, he had apparently contended in favor of the opinion we have just pointed out. In his treatise on the mass, which appeared in 1520, he said: “I can every day partake of the sacraments, if I only call to mind the words and promises of Christ, and if I nourish and strengthen my faith with them.” Neither Carlstadt, Zwingle, nor Calvin, have ever used stronger language than this. It would even appear that the idea frequently occurred to him at this period, that a symbolical explanation of the Lord’s Supper would be the most powerful weapon to overturn the papal system from top to bottom; for he said in 1525, that five years previously he had undergone many severe temptations for this doctrine, and that the man who could have proved to him that there was only bread and wine in the eucharist, would have done him the greatest service. HRSCV3 369.9

But new circumstances threw him into an opposition, at times not unmingled with violence, against those very opinions to which he had made so near an approach. The fanaticism of the enthusiasts of the day explains the direction Luther now took. They were not content with undervaluing what they called the external Word, that is, the Bible, and with pretending to special revelations from the Holy Ghost; they went so far as to despise the sacrament of the Lord’s Supper, as something outward, and to speak of an inward communion as being the only true communion. From that time, in every attempt made to explain the doctrine of the Lord’s Supper in a symbolical manner, Luther saw only the danger of weakening the authority of the Holy Scriptures; of substituting arbitrary allegories for their real meaning; of spiritualizing everything in religion; of making it consist, not in the gifts of God, but in the impressions of men; and of substituting by this means for the true Christianity a mysticism, a theosophy, a fanaticism, that would infallibly become its grave. We must acknowledge that, had it not been for Luther’s violent opposition, the mystical, enthusiastic, and subjective tendency would then perhaps have made rapid progress, and would have turned back the tide of blessings that the Reformation was to spread over the world. HRSCV3 370.1

Carlstadt, impatient at being prevented from explaining his doctrine freely in Wittenberg, urged by his conscience to combat a system which in his “opinion lowered Christ’s death and destroyed his righteousness,” resolved “to give a public testimony for the love of poor and cruelly deceived Christendom.” He left Wittenberg at the beginning of 1524, without informing either the university or the chapter of his intentions, and repaired to the small town of Orlamund, the church of which was placed under his superintendence. He had the incumbent dismissed, got himself nominated pastor in his stead, and in despite of the chapter, the university, and the elector, established himself in this new post. HRSCV3 370.2

He soon began to propagate his doctrine. “It is impossible,” said he, “to find in the real presence any advantage that does not proceed from faith; it is therefore useless.” In explaining Christ’s words at the institution of the Lord’s Supper, he had recourse to an interpretation which is not admitted by the reformed Churches. Luther, in the disputation at Leipsic, had explained these words: Thou art Peter, and on this rock I will build my Church, by separating the two propositions, and applying the latter to our Saviour’s person. “In like manner,” said Carlstadt, “the words take, eat, refer to the bread; but this is my body relates to Jesus Christ, who then pointed to himself, and intimated by the symbol of breaking the bread, that his body was soon to be broken.” HRSCV3 370.3

Carlstadt did not stop here. He was scarcely emancipated from the guardianship of Luther, before he felt his zeal revive against the images. It was easy for his imprudent discourses and his enthusiastic language to inflame men’s minds in these agitated times. The people, imagining they heard a second Elijah, broke the idols of Baal. The excitement soon spread to the surrounding villages. The elector would have interfered; but the peasants replied that they ought to obey God rather than man. Upon this, the prince determined to send Luther to Orlamund to restore peace. Luther regarded Carlstadt as a man eaten up by a love of notoriety, a fanatic who might be so far carried away as to make war on Christ himself. Frederick might perhaps have made a wiser choice. Luther departed, and Carlstadt was fated to see this troublesome rival once more come and disturb his plans of reform, and check his soaring flight. HRSCV3 370.4

Jena was on the road to Orlamund. Luther reached this city on the 23rd of August, and on the 24th went into the pulpit at seven in the morning; he spoke for an hour and a half in the presence of a numerous auditory against fanaticism, rebellion, the breaking of images, and the contempt of the real presence, inveighing most energetically against the innovations of Orlamund. He did not mention Carlstadt by name, but every one could see whom he had in view. HRSCV3 370.5

Carlstadt, either by accident or design, was at Jena, and among the number of Luther’s hearers. He did not hesitate to seek an explanation of this sermon. Luther was dining with the prior of Wittenberg, the burgomaster, the town-clerk, the pastor of Jena, and several officers of the emperor and the margrave, when he received a letter from Carlstadt demanding an interview; he handed it to his neighbors, and replied to the bearer: “If Doctor Carlstadt wishes to come to me, let him come; if not, I can do without him.” Carlstadt came. His visit produced a lively sensation in the whole party. The majority, eager to see the two lions battling, suspended their repast and looked on, while the more timid turned pale with alarm. HRSCV3 370.6

Carlstadt, on Luther’s invitation, took a seat in front of him and said: “Doctor, in your sermon of this morning you classed me with those who inculcate rebellion and assassination. Such a charge I declare to be false.” HRSCV3 371.1

Luther.—“I did not name you, but since the cap fits, you may wear it.” HRSCV3 371.2

After a brief pause Carlstadt resumed: HRSCV3 371.3

“I will undertake to prove that on the doctrine of the sacrament you have contradicted yourself, and that no one, since the days of the apostles, has taught it so purely as myself.” HRSCV3 371.4

Luther.—“Write! combat my opinions!” HRSCV3 371.5

Carlstadt.—“I offer you a public disputation at Wittenberg or at Erfurth, if you will procure me a safe-conduct.” HRSCV3 371.6

Luther.—“Fear nothing, doctor.” HRSCV3 371.7

Carlstadt.—“You bind me hand and foot, and when you have rendered me unable to defend myself, you strike me.” HRSCV3 371.8

There was another brief silence, when Luther resumed:— HRSCV3 371.9

“Write against me, but openly and not in secret.” HRSCV3 371.10

Carlstadt.—“I would do so, if I knew that you were speaking sincerely.” HRSCV3 371.11

Luther.—“Do so, and I will give you a florin.” HRSCV3 371.12

Carlstadt.—“Give it me; I accept the challenge.” HRSCV3 371.13

At these words Luther took a gold florin out of his pocket, and giving it to Carlstadt, said: “There is the money: now strike boldly.” HRSCV3 371.14

Carlstadt holding the florin in his hand, turned towards the assembly and said: “Dear brethren, this is my earnest-money, and warrant that I have authority to write against Doctor Luther; be you all witnesses to this.” HRSCV3 371.15

Then bending the florin that it might be known again, he put it in his purse and shook hands with Luther, who drank his health, to which Carlstadt responded. “The more vigorous your attack, the better I shall like it,” resumed Luther. HRSCV3 371.16

“If I miss you,” replied Carlstadt, “it shall be through no fault of mine.” HRSCV3 371.17

They once more shook hands, and Carlstadt returned to his dwelling. HRSCV3 371.18

Thus, says an historian, as from a single spark often proceeds the conflagration of a whole forest, so from this small beginning a great division arose in the Church. HRSCV3 371.19

Luther set out for Orlamund, and arrived there very ill prepared by the scene at Jena. He assembled the council and the church, and said: “Neither the elector nor the university will acknowledge Carlstadt as your pastor.”—“If Carlstadt is not our pastor,” replied the treasurer of the town-council, “St. Paul is a false teacher, and your books are full of falsehoods, for we have elected him.” HRSCV3 371.20

As he said this, Carlstadt entered the room. Some of those who were near Luther beckoned him to sit down, but Carlstadt, going straight up to Luther, said: “Dear doctor, if you will allow me, I will entertain you.” HRSCV3 371.21

Luther.—“You are my opponent. I gave you a gold florin for that purpose.” HRSCV3 371.22

Carlstadt.—“I will be your opponent so long as you remain the enemy of God and his truth.” HRSCV3 371.23

Luther.—“Leave the room: I cannot allow you to be present here.” HRSCV3 371.24

Carlstadt.—“This is a public meeting. If your cause is good, why should you fear me?” HRSCV3 371.25

Luther to his servant.—“Go and put the horses to; I have nothing to do with Carlstadt, and since he will not leave, I must.” HRSCV3 371.26

At the same time Luther rose from his seat, upon which Carlstadt quitted the room. HRSCV3 371.27

After a short pause, Luther resumed:— HRSCV3 371.28

“Prove by Scripture that we ought to destroy the images.” HRSCV3 371.29

A Councillor, opening a Bible.—“Doctor, you will grant me, however, that Moses knew God’s commandments? Well, then, here are his words: Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image, or any likeness.” HRSCV3 371.30

Luther.—This passage refers only to idolatrous images. If I have a crucifix hung up in my chamber, and do not worship it, what harm can it do me?” HRSCV3 371.31

A Shoemaker.—“I have frequently taken off my hat before an image that I have seen in a room or in the streets. It is an idolatrous act that deprives God of the glory that is due to him alone.” HRSCV3 371.32

Luther.—“Must we then, because of their abuse, put our women to death, and throw our wine into the streets?” HRSCV3 371.33

Another Member of the Church.—“No! these are God’s creatures, which we are not commanded to destroy.” HRSCV3 371.34

After the conference had lasted some time longer, Luther and his friends returned to their carriage, astonished at what they had seen, and without having succeeded in convincing the inhabitants, who claimed for themselves the right of freely interpreting and explaining the Scriptures. The excitement was very great in Orlamund; the people insulted Luther, and some of them shouted out: “Begone, in the name of all the devils! May you break your neck before you get out of our city!” Never had the reformer undergone such humiliation. HRSCV3 371.35

He proceeded thence to Kale, where the pastor had also embraced the doctrines of Carlstadt, and resolved to preach there. But when he entered the pulpit, he found the fragments of a crucifix. At first his emotion was very great; but recovering himself, he gathered up the pieces into a corner, and delivered a sermon without a single allusion to this circumstance. He said at a later period: “I determined to revenge myself on the devil by contempt.” HRSCV3 372.1

The nearer the elector approached the end of his days, the more he feared lest men should go too far in the Reformation. He gave orders that Carlstadt should be deprived of his offices, and that he should not only leave Orlamund, but the electoral states also. In vain did the church of this place intercede in his favor; in vain did they ask that he might be allowed to remain among them as a private citizen, with permission to preach occasionally; in vain did they represent that they valued God’s truth more than the whole world, or even a thousand worlds, if God had created as many: Frederick was inflexible, and he even went so far as to refuse Carlstadt the funds necessary for his journey. Luther had nothing to do with these severe measures of the prince; they were far from his disposition, as he showed at a later period. But Carlstadt looked upon him as the author of all his misfortunes, and filled Germany with his complaints and lamentations. He wrote a farewell address to his friends at Orlamund. The people were called together by the ringing of bells; and the letter, which was read to the assembled church, drew tears from every eye. It was signed, “Andrew Bodenstein, expelled by Luther, unheard and unconvicted.” HRSCV3 372.2

We cannot but feel pain at seeing the contest between these two men, who once were friends, and who were both so excellent. A feeling of sadness took possession of all the disciples of the Reformation. What would become of it now that its most illustrious defenders thus opposed each other? Luther noticed these fears, and endeavoured to allay them. “Let us fight,” said he, “as if fighting for another. The cause is God’s, and to God belongs the glory! He will contend and conquer without us. Let that fall which ought to fall; let that stand which ought to stand. It is not our own cause that is at stake, nor our own glory that we seek.” HRSCV3 372.3

Carlstadt took refuge at Strasburg, where he published several works. He was a sound Latin, Greek, and Hebrew scholar, says Dr. Scheur; and Luther acknowledged his superior crudition. Endowed with an elevated mind, he sacrificed his reputation, his rank, his home, his very bread, to his convictions. He afterwards proceeded to Switzerland; it is there he should have commenced his teaching: his independence needed the free air in which Zwingle and Oecolampadius breathed. His doctrine soon awakened almost as much attention as that obtained by Luther’s first theses. Switzerland appeared to be won; Bucer and Capito seemed to be carried away by it. HRSCV3 372.4

Luther’s indignation was then at its height, and he published one of the most powerful, but at the same time one of his most violent controversial works—his book “Against the Celestial Prophets.” HRSCV3 372.5

Thus the Reformation, attacked by the pope, attacked by the emperor, attacked by the princes, was beginning also to tear its own vitals. It seemed that it must fall under the weight of so many evils; and assuredly it would have fallen had it been a work of man. But soon from the very brink of destruction it rose up with renewed energy. HRSCV3 372.6