The Prophetic Faith of Our Fathers, vol. 1

IX. Scholasticism in Transition-Roger Bacon and William of Occam

The climax of the influence of scholasticism was reached with Thomas Aquinas. Then, beginning with Roger Bacon and William of Occam-although both were well versed in scholastical methods and still belonged to this period—we begin to observe a new element emerging, an urge for factual truth instead of speculative philosophizings. This finally led to a reversal of scholasticism’s trend, and helped to usher in a new age. Both these men, consequently, and especially Roger Bacon, were in advance of their times, and did not receive the respect and honor due them. PFF1 659.4

1. ROGER BACON ASSAILS SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY

Born of wealthy parents at or near Ilchester, England, ROGER BACON (c. 1214-1274) studied at Oxford and Paris. He was influenced by Grosseteste, the famous exegete and bishop of Lincoln, ¹⁰² and also by Adam Marsh. He became a noted professor, and entered the Franciscan Order. He had wonderful insight, for his time, into natural science, which he made one of his main fields of investigation. Often misunderstood, he encountered numerous difficulties. In time he was forbidden to write any further. Later he was even held under arrest in a monastery. PFF1 660.1

In 1266, by request of Pope Clement IV, he sent his Opus Majus to Rome, followed shortly by the Opus Minus, and Opus Tertium. In his Opus Majus he very frankly criticizes the evils of the current methods of study. Among these he enumerates the preponderance of speculative philosophy. Theology is a divine science, he holds. Therefore it should be based on divine principles, and not exhaust itself in hazy philosophical distinctions. He inveighs against general ignorance of the theologians of the original languages and their high regard for Peter Lombard’s Book of Sentences, and their almost complete negligence of the Holy Scripture. The Bible is an inexhaustible fountain of truth, from which all human philosophers, even the heathen, have drawn their knowledge directly or indirectly; therefore no science can be true if contrary to the Holy Writ. ¹⁰³ PFF1 660.2

But it is largely in the field of natural science that Bacon’s light shines, in his treatises on the principles of optics, the celestial bodies, and their distances from one another. In this connection he also proves that the Julian calendar is inaccurate and urges its revision. Furthermore he computes the long-accepted crucifixion date for A.D. 33 by means of lunar tables; assuming that the later rabbinical Jewish calendar was in force back in the time of Christ, he calculates the lunar Passover date astronomically so as to put Nisan 14 on Friday. ¹⁰⁴ PFF1 660.3

This date was used by later prophetic expositors as a pivotal point for the seventy weeks-for it was not until some centuries later that the applicability of the rabbinical computation was challenged ¹⁰⁵ but Bacon does not connect it with prophecy. Yet he evidently refers to the seventy weeks when he says, “The prophecy of Daniel by a computation of years evidently extends up to Christ; for he came after that time.” ¹⁰⁶ He cites 2 Esdras 7:28, 29 for four hundred years from Ezra to Christ. ¹⁰⁷ PFF1 661.1

But Bacon’s prophetic interpretation is mostly incidental to his interest in natural science, such as his remark that “an equality of elements” in resurrected bodies “excludes corruption for ever.” ¹⁰⁸ When he wishes to impress the leaders of Christendom with the importance of promoting experimental science as an aid to faith and a weapon against the enemies of the faith, ¹⁰⁹ he says: PFF1 661.2

“The Church should consider the employment of these inventions against unbelievers and rebels, in order that it may spare Christian blood, and especially should it do so because of future perils in the times of Antichrist, which with the grace of God it would be easy to meet, if prelates and princes promoted study and investigated the secrets of nature and of art.” ¹¹⁰ PFF1 661.3

This is necessary, he contends, because Antichrist, like the Tartars and Saracens, will use astronomy and science; if the pope would use these means to hinder the ills of Christianity, blessings would result, and life would be prolonged. ¹¹¹ PFF1 661.4

He recommends chronology as necessary to trace the history of the world and the time of Christ, and to avoid the errors of Jews, Saracens, and those who will follow Antichrist, and says that “all wise men believe that we are not far removed from the times of Antichrist,” ¹¹² but the subject needs more study. PFF1 662.1

“If the Church should be willing to consider the sacred text and prophecies, also the prophecies of the Sibyl and of Merlin, Aquila, Seston, Joachim, and many others, moreover the histories and the books of philosophers, and should order a study of the paths of astronomy, it would gain some idea of greater certainty regarding the time of Antichrist.” ¹¹³ PFF1 662.2

Bacon describes Antichrist in terms of the old traditions concerning the races of Gog and Magog, from the north around the Black Sea, and those behind the Caspian gates of Alexander, who will break forth and devastate the world, and will exalt as God of gods “a leader [Antichrist] who will come with a foul and magical law”—the next law after that of Mohammed—and who will “destroy the other laws” and rule for a short time. ¹¹⁴ PFF1 662.3

2. WILLIAM OF OCCAM DENIES NEED FOR PAPACY

The second man, likewise an Englishman, who made a deep impression upon his contemporaries, and whose influence was felt for many centuries thereafter, was WILLIAM OF OCCAM, or Ockham (c. 1280-1349). Born in Surrey and educated at Oxford, he, like Bacon, joined the Friars Minor and was a professor in both Oxford and Paris. His fame as a philosopher and logician rose to such heights that he was called the “Invincible Doctor,” and in the quarrel between the Minorites and the curia, over the question of poverty, he sided with others against the pope. In 1323 he was summoned to the papal court at Avignon and imprisoned there for more than four years. Shortly before the reversal of his excommunication by John XXII, in 1328, was announced, he escaped with some other leading spirits to Italy, and found protection under Louis of Bavaria, who had broken with the Avignon authorities. As a counselor to Louis, he developed the ideas that he had already enunciated in Paris. PFF1 662.4

Occam advocated a clear separation between spiritual and secular authorities, and tried to prove that the political pretensions of the Papacy were contrary to the will of Christ. He also contended that the Papacy itself, in its Roman and monarchical form, was not necessary to the church, which might quite as well be governed by collective authority. ¹¹⁵ He aimed at a restoration of the strict form of nominalism, which held that no “universal” is a substance existing outside of the mind. At the same time he declared that scientific proof of dogma is impossible. Authority, reason, and experience are sources of religious knowledge. He was in some respects a forerunner of Luther, and Luther spoke most highly of him, calling him his “dear teacher,” and declared himself to be of Occam’s party. ¹¹⁶ Surely all these movements were necessary in order to prepare the way for a new approach, and to make possible the Reformation destined to come in due time. PFF1 663.1