The Prophetic Faith of Our Fathers, vol. 1

VI. The Battle Within Scholasticism

ANSELM OF CANTERBURY (1033-1109), a native of Piedmont, went to France, and became a monk. He studied under the famous Lanfranc, and succeeded him as abbot of the monastery of Bec and later also as archbishop of Canterbury, becoming thereby the head of the church in England. He was meek and humble, and of spotless integrity. At the same time he loudly defended the rights of the church against those of the crown. He was pre-eminently a scholar, however, and in the history of theology he stands as the father of orthodox scholasticism. PFF1 651.2

He was a representative of extreme “realism,” in order to meet the nominalistic tendency of his time. Dogma should not be probed by reason, and reason should be subordinate to tradition, which to him was equal to revelation. The task of scholastic theology, according to him, was to show the logical development of the doctrines of the church as translated by the Fathers, and to give a dialectical demonstration. ⁶⁷ This finally became the norm of all orthodox theology in the Roman church. PFF1 651.3

PETRUS ABELARD (Pierre de Palais, or Petrus Palatinus, 1079-1142) placed reason above the authority of tradition. Born near Nantes, France, he must be noted as one of the boldest thinkers of the Middle Ages, who sought to break down the authority of tradition ⁶⁸ and the veneration of the Fathers. A professor at twenty-three, he helped to develop the restless spirit of speculation, and became a master in dialectics, taking as his motto, “By doubting, we arrive at truth.” ⁶⁹ He was the first great critic. The prophets did not always speak under the Spirit of God, he held. Even Peter made mistakes. Why should not the Fathers also have made mistakes? In his book Sic et Non (Yes and No), he presented the contradictory opinions of the Fathers, and opened the way to criticism of the patristic texts. PFF1 651.4

The didactic faculty was predominant. If the principles, “Reason aids faith” and “Faith aids reason,” are to be taken as the inspiration of scholastic theology, then Abelard was inclined to emphasize the former. PFF1 652.1

Abelard brought searching logic to bear on the whole range of contemporary theology, and challenged the old concepts. He exerted his influence over some five thousand students, some of whom were later bishops, and one was even a pope (Celestine II). That brought him often into conflict with the more orthodox, and one of his strongest opponents was Bernard of Clairvaux. Both men saw plainly enough what was at stake in the conflict of principle. If Bernard’s principle should prevail, then authority should be the only guide of the Christian conscience and the appeal even to historical facts would be treason and heresy. If Abelard’s principles should prevail, they must undoubtedly lead to the modernist’s view and evolve doctrines entirely incompatible with the authoritarian position. Here, already in the twelfth century, we have the beginnings of the struggle of Ultramontanism against Modernism. ⁷⁰ Abelard was tried as a heretic, and condemned at the Council of Sens in 1141, and ordered to silence and retirement in a monastery. PFF1 652.2

1. PETER LOMBARD-FATHER OF SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY

Next we come to one who is outstanding, not so much for his originality, as for his industry in the collection of all available theological knowledge, thus rendering a remarkable service to the church. This is PETER LOMBARD (c. 1100-1164), who was born at Novara, Italy, and studied in Bologna, Paris, and Rheims. He was sponsored by Bernard of Clairvaux. He eagerly read Abelard, but was not so polemically inclined as to take sides. Rather he was interested in spanning the whole field of theology. He systematically covered the entire ground of dogmatics, and is considered the father of systematic theology in the Catholic Church. His four books of Sentences became the most popular theological textbook, and these were held in esteem as high as were Calvin’s Institutes later in the Reformed Church. Lombard’s Sentences and Thomas Aquinas’ Summa were studied and expounded more than the Scriptures. ⁷¹ PFF1 652.3

As an index to the scope of Peter Lombard’s influence, it may be noted that 152 commentaries were produced by the Dominicans and about as many by the Franciscans. PFF1 653.1

2. PETER COMESTOR: STRESSES LITERAL, HISTORICAL IN TERPRETATION

PETER COMESTOR (d. about 1178) was praised to the pope as being among the three most cultured men in France. His works include commentaries on the Gospels and a Biblical history. Comestor’s exposition of Daniel 2 delineates the gold, silver, brass, and iron as Babylon, Persia, Grecia, and Rome in standard form. On the ensuing divisions and the still future establishment of the kingdom of God he quotes Josephus as saying that the stone is believed by the Hebrews to be their future kingdom. ⁷² PFF1 653.2

He applies the beast symbols of Daniel 7 to the same series of world kingdoms, with the ten horns as ten divisions of the Roman kingdom at the end, and the Little Horn as Antichrist (out of Dan, born in Babylonia), who uproots three kings and kills the Two Witnesses, Enoch and Elijah, and rules three and a half years. ⁷³ PFF1 653.3