International Standard Bible Encyclopedia

Story — Sycamore

Story Writer

Story Writer - sto'-ri-rit-er: In the sense of chronicler or historian occurs in 1 Esdras 2:17 (margin "recorder") and 2:25.

Stout; Stoutness - stout, stout'-nes: In modern English the word signifies strength firmness, corpulence, etc., but in English Versions of the Bible (Psalms 76:5; Isaiah 10:12; 46:12; Daniel 7:20; Malachi 3:13 with stoutness" in Isaiah 9:9) it always means "bold" or "proud" and invariably in a bad sense; compare the German stolz, with which "stout" is allied.

Straight Street

Straight Street - strat stret.

See DAMASCUS.

Straight; Straightway

Straight; Straightway - strat, strat'-wa: "Straiglit" and "strait" are two entirely different words that have no connection with each other in English, the former being derived from the Anglo-Saxon, while the latter has come back from the Latin through the Romance. At some point still farther back, however, the two words may have had some common original with the general meaning "to stretch." But in straight the stretched object is a cord from which all curvature is removed, while in strait a solid is thought of, which is drawn out and made narrow, used figuratively in Job 20:22; 36:16; Matthew 7:13 f; Philippians 1:23. Before English spelling had reached a relatively settled stage the spelling of the two words was interchanged occasionally, but in even Elizabethan times this could happen only through ignorance. In English Versions of the Bible the forms are kept distinct with great care. "Straight," then, appears only in the sense "not crooked," in the Old Testament most commonly for some form of yashar, "be smooth" (2 Chronicles 32:30, etc.). In the Apocrypha and New Testament the word is not very common, being used for orthos (Baruch 6:27; Hebrews 12:13); euthus (Judith 13:20; Mark 1:3 and parallel's), with the verbs anorthoo (Luke 13:13), and euthuno (John 1:23; Hebrews 12:12 the Revised Version margin), "to make straight," and euthudromeo, "to make a straight course" (Acts 16:11; 21:1). For straightway in English Versions of the Bible overwhelmingly the most common word is euthus, or eutheos. the King James Version varies the translation of this adverb by using either "straightway" or "immediately" without distinction, but the Revised Version (British and American) (with a very few exceptions, e.g., Matthew 24:29) has adhered to "straightway." The other occurrences in the Bible (1 Samuel 9:13; 28:20, etc.) represent no special word.

Burton Scott Easton

Strain

Strain - stran (diulizo, "to strain off," "to filter"): Matthew 23:24, "Ye blind guides, that strain out the gnat, and swallow the camel" The imagery is that of a drinking-vessel full of liquid, from which tiny impurities are carefully removed while immense masses of other impure matter (Leviticus 11:4) are overlooked (compare Matthew 7:3 f). The first edition of the King James Version read the same as the Revised Version (British and American), but in the later editions a misprint converted "strain out" into "strain at," an error that has never been corrected.

Strait; Straiten; Straitly

Strait; Straiten; Straitly - strat, strat'-'-n, strat'-il: The word "strait" and its compounds are used in English Versions of the Bible in the literal sense of "narrow" (tsar, 2 Kings 6:1; Isaiah 49:20; mutsaq, Job 37:10; 'atsal, Ezekiel 42:6) and in the figurative sense of "strict" (shabha`, Exodus 13:19; caghar, Joshua 6:1; tsarar, "to be distressed," 2 Samuel 24:14 parallel; yatsar, Job 20:22; metsar, Lamentations 1:3). In Apocrypha the verb "straitened" occurs in Susanna verse 22. In the New Testament we have stenos (Matthew 7:13 f parallel, the Revised Version (British and American) "narrow"; polus, "much"; so the Revised Version (British and American) Mark 3:12; 5:43; sunecho, "to urge," "hold together," Luke 12:50; Philippians 1:23). It occurs in its superlative form in Acts 26:5, "After the straitest (akribestatos, "most exact," "scrupulous") sect of our religion," i.e. "the most precise and rigorous in interpreting the Mosaic Law, and in observing the more minute precepts of the Law and of tradition" (Thayer, Lexicon, under the word; compare Acts 22:3).

Strakes

Strakes - straks: An older form for "streaks" (so the American Standard Revised Version) in the King James Version, the English Revised Version Genesis 30:37 (pitslah, "peeled spot"); Leviticus 14:37 (sheqa`aruroth, "hollow places"). For "strake," Tobit 11:11; the King James Version Acts 27:17.

See STRIKE.

Strange Gods

Strange Gods - See GOD, STRANGE.

Strange Wife

Strange Wife - "Strange" as contrasted with "an Israelite." Such wives are spoken of in the King James Version Ezra 10:2, 11 (the English Revised Version "strange women," the American Standard Revised Version "foreign women"; see STRANGER AND SOJOURNER; in the parallel 1 Esdras 8:68 through 9:37, the King James Version uses "strange wives" and "strange women" indifferently, and the Revised Version (British and American) here follows the King James Version) as "wives of the people of the land," in taking whom the men of Israel are said to have "trespassed against their God." Accordingly such wives were "put away."

Strange Woman

Strange Woman - The Hebrew zar, translated "stranger," meant primarily one "who turns aside," i.e. to visit another country; then a "sojourner," "stranger." The "strange woman" of Proverbs 2:16 is a technical term for "harlot"; compare Judges 11:1-2, where "son of a strange (the Revised Version (British and American) "another") woman" (Judges 11:2, 'acher) is parallel to "the son of a harlot" (Judges 11:1).

See STRANGE WIFE.

Strange, Fire

Strange, Fire - stranj ('esh zarah, "alien fire"): These words are mentioned in connection with the fatal sin committed by the two oldest sons of Aaron, Nadab and Abihu, in "offering strange fire before Yahweh," on the occasion of the formal consecration of the Aaronitic priesthood (Leviticus 10:1-2). The fact is mentioned again in Numbers 3:4; 26:61. The greatest calamity of all befell them in that they were cut off childless, which for every true Israelite was the darkest fate imaginable. This fact is mentioned twice (Numbers 3:4 and 1 Chronicles 24:2). The power which cut off the lives of Nadab and Abihu (Leviticus 10:1-2) is the same as that which shortly before had consumed the consecratory burnt offering (Leviticus 9:24). What was its true character, whether, as Rosenmuller and Dachsel surmise, it was a lightning stroke or some other supernatural agency, is not worth while debating. It is enough for us to know that "there came forth fire from before Yahweh and devoured them." Yet this latter word is not to be taken literally, since they were carried out for burial in their own linen garments (Leviticus 10:5). They were therefore merely killed, not incinerated. What was their sin? The words "strange fire" have been explained either as common fire, which they placed in their censers, or as unholy incense, which they put thereon (Exodus 39:38). But the text plainly points to the former. The sacred fire, once kindled on the altar, was never to be permitted to go out (Leviticus 6:12 f). When later the temple was dedicated Yahweh again lighted the fire on the altar from heaven, as in the case of the dedication of the tabernacle. As, however, the injunction to take fire for the censers of the incense offering only from the coals of the altar is not found before (Leviticus 16:12), Rosenmuller's observation would seem to be very much to the point: "Quamquam enim in iis quae praecedunt, non extat hoc interdictum, tamen est verisimile Mosem vetasse Aaroni et filiis eius ne ignem alienum altari imponerent." ("For although his injunction does not hold in regard to the preceding cases, yet it is very probable that Moses had forbidden Aaron and his sons to place strange fire upon the altar.") A verbal injunction of Moses must have preceded the fatal mistake. But the text leads us to believe there was more than a mistake here. Some find here the sin of drunkenness, from the enjoined abstinence from any intoxicating drink before the priests thereafter minister before Yahweh (Leviticus 10:9). The likeliest explanation is that, inflated with pride on account of the exaltation of the Aaronitic family above all Israel, they broke unbidden into the ritual of the consecration of the tabernacle and priesthood, eager to take part in the ceremony, and in their haste bringing strange fire into the tabernacle, and thus met their death (see Oehler, Old Testament Theol., 126, 282). The fire burning on the altar came from God, it might never go out, since it represented "the unbroken course of adoration of Yahweh, carried on in sacrifice." And this course was interrupted by Nadab and Abihu. The fire on the altar was a symbol of holiness, and they sought to overlay it with unholiness. And thus it became to them a consuming fire, because they approached the Holy One in a profane spirit (compare Isaiah 33:14).

Henry E. Dosker

Stranger and Sojourner (in the Apocrypha and the New Testament)

Stranger and Sojourner (in the Apocrypha and the New Testament) - The technical meaning attaching to the Hebrew terms is not present in the Greek words translated "stranger" and "sojourner," and the distinctions made by English Versions of the Bible are partly only to give uniformity in the translation. For "stranger" the usual Greek word is xenos, meaning primarily "guest" and so appearing in the combination "hatred toward guests" in Wisdom of Solomon 19:13 (misoxenia). Xenos is the most common word for "stranger" in the New Testament (Matthew 25:35, etc.), but it seems not to be used by itself with this force in the Apocrypha. Almost equally common in the New Testament is allotrios, "belonging to another" (Matthew 17:25-26; John 10:5 (bis)), and this is the usual word in the Apocrypha (Sirach 8:18; 1 Maccabees 1:38, etc.), but for some inexplicable reason the Revised Version (British and American) occasionally translates by "alien" (contrast, e.g. 1 Maccabees 1:38; 2:7). Compare the corresponding verb apallotrioo (Ephesians 2:12; 4:18; Colossians 1:21). With the definite meaning of "foreigner" are allogenes, "of another nation," the Revised Version (British and American) "stranger" (1 Esdras 8:83; 1 Maccabees 3:45 (the King James Version "alien"); Luke 17:18 (the Revised Version margin "alien")), and allophulos, "of another tribe," the Revised Version (British and American) "stranger" (Baruch 6:5; 1 Maccabees 4:12, etc.) or "of another nation" (Acts 10:28). For "to sojourn" the commonest form is paroikeo, "to dwell beside," the Revised Version (British and American) always "to sojourn" (Judith 5:7; Sirach 41:19; Luke 24:18 (the King James Version "to be a stranger"); Hebrews 11:9). The corresponding noun for "sojourner" is paroikos (Sirach 29:26 f (the King James Version "stranger"); Acts 7:6, 26; Ephesians 2:19; 1 Peter 2:11), with paroikia, "sojourning" (Wisdom of Solomon 19:10; Sirach 16:8; Acts 13:17 (the King James Version "dwelling as strangers"); 1 Peter 1:17). In addition, epidemeo, "to be among people," is translated "to sojourn" in Acts 2:10; 17:21, and its compound parepidemos, as "sojourner" in 1 Peter 1:1 (in Hebrews 11:13; 1 Peter 2:11, "pilgrim").

Burton Scott Easton

Stranger and Sojourner (in the Old Testament)

Stranger and Sojourner (in the Old Testament) - stranj'-er:

I. THE GER

1. Legal provisions

(1) Principles

(2) Rules

2. Relation to Sacrifice and Ritual

3. Historical Circumstances

II. THE TOSHABH

III. THE NOKHRI OR BEN NEKHAR

1. Marriage

2. Exclusion of Some Races from the Assembly

IV. THE ZAR

Four different Hebrew words must be considered separately: (1) ger, the American Standard Revised Version "sojourner" or "stranger"; (2) toshabh, the American Standard Revised Version "sojourner"; (3) nokhri, ben nekhar, the American Standard Revised Version "foreigner"; (4) zar, the American Standard Revised Version "stranger."

I. The Ger. This word with its kindred verb is applied with slightly varying meanings to anyone who resides in a country or a town of which he is not a full native land-owning citizen; e.g., the word is used of the patriarchs in Palestine, the Israelites in Egypt, the Levites dwelling among the Israelites (Deuteronomy 18:6; Judges 17:7, etc.), the Ephraimite in Gibeah (Judges 19:16). It is also particularly used of free aliens residing among the Israelites, and it is with the position of such that this article deals. This position is absolutely unparalleled in early legal systems (A. H. Post, Grundriss der ethnologischen Jurisprudenz, I, 448, note 3), which are usually far from favorable to strangers.

1. Legal Provisions: (1) Principles. The dominant principles of the legislation are most succinctly given in two passages: He "loveth the ger in giving him food and raiment" (Deuteronomy 10:18); "And if a ger sojourn with thee (variant "you") in your land, ye shall not do him wrong. The ger that sojourneth with you shall be unto you as the home-born among you, and thou shalt love him as thyself; for ye were gerim in the land of Egypt" (Leviticus 19:33 f). This treatment of the stranger is based partly on historic recollection, partly on the duty of the Israelite to his God. Because the ger would be at a natural disadvantage through his alienage, he becomes one of the favorites of a legislation that gives special protection to the weak and helpless.

(2) Rules. In nationality the freeman followed his father, so that the son of a ger and an Israelitess was himself a ger (Leviticus 24:10-22). Special care was to be taken to do him no judicial wrong (Deuteronomy 1:16; Deuteronomy 27:19). In what may roughly be called criminal law it was enacted that the same rules should apply to gerim as to natives (Leviticus 18:26, which is due to the conception that certain abominations defile a land; Leviticus 20:2, where the motive is also religious; Leviticus 24:10-22; see SBL , 84 ff; Numbers 35:15). A free Israelite who became his slave was subject to redemption by a relative at any time on payment of the fair price (Leviticus 25:47 ff). This passage and Deuteronomy 28:43 contemplate the possibility of a stranger's becoming wealthy, but by far the greater number of the legal provisions regard him as probably poor. Thus provision is made for him to participate in tithes (Deuteronomy 14:29; 26:12), gleanings of various sorts and forgotten sheaves (Leviticus 19:10; 23:22; Deuteronomy 24:19-20, 21), and poor hired servants were not to be oppressed (Deuteronomy 24:14).

2. Relation to Sacrifice and Ritual: Nearly all the main holy days apply to the ger. He was to rest on the Sabbath (Exodus 20:10; 23:12, etc.), to rejoice on Weeks and Tabernacles (Deuteronomy 16:1-22), to observe the Day of Atonement (Leviticus 16:29), to have no leaven on the Festival of Unleavened Bread (Exodus 12:19). But he could not keep the Passover unless he underwent circumcision (Exodus 12:48). He could not eat blood at any rate during the wilderness period (Leviticus 17:10-12), and for that period, but not thereafter, he was probihited from eating that which died of itself (Leviticus 17:15; Deuteronomy 14:21) under pain of being unclean until the even. He could offer sacrifices (Leviticus 17:8 f; Leviticus 22:18; Numbers 15:14 f), and was subject to the same rules as a native for unwitting sins (Numbers 15:22-31), and for purification for uncleanness by reason of contact with a dead body (Numbers 19:10-13).

3. Historical Circumstances: The historical circumstances were such as to render the position of the resident alien important from the first. A "mixed multitude" went up with the Israelites from Egypt, and after the conquest we find Israelites and the races of Palestine living side by side throughout the country. We repeatedly read of resident aliens in the historical books, e.g. Uriah the Hittite. According to 2 Chronicles 2:17 f (Hebrews 16 f) there was a very large number of such in the days of Solomon, but the figure may be excessive. These seem to have been the remnant of the conquered tribes (1 Kings 9:20 f). Ezekiel in his vision assigned to gerim landed inheritance among the Israelites (47:22 f). Hospitality to the ger was of course a religious duty and the host would go to any lengths to protect his guest (Genesis 19:1-38; Judges 19:24).

II. The Toshabh. Of the toshabh we know very little. It is possible that the word is practically synonymous with ger, but perhaps it is used of less permanent sojourning. Thus in Leviticus 22:10 it appears to cover anybody residing with a priest. A toshabh could not eat the Passover or the "holy" things of a priest (Exodus 12:45; Leviticus 22:10). His children could be purchased as perpetual slaves, and the law of the Jubilee did not apply to them as to Israelites (Leviticus 25:45). He is expressly mentioned in the law of homicide (Numbers 35:15), but otherwise we have no information as to his legal position. Probably it was similar to that of the ger.

III. The Nokhri Ben Nekhar. The nokhri or ben nekhar was a foreigner. The word is far wider than those considered above. It covers everything of alien or foreign character regardless of the place of residence. By circumcision a foreign slave could enter into the covenant with Abraham. Foreigners were of course excluded from the Passover (Exodus 12:43), but could offer sacrifices to Israel's God at the religious capital (Leviticus 22:25). The Israelite could exact interest of them (Deuteronomy 23:20) and the payment of debts in cases where an Israelite debtor was protected by the release of Deuteronomy 15:3. Moses forbade the appointment of a foreigner as a ruler (Deuteronomy 17:15, in a law which according to Massoretic Text relates to a "king," but in the preferable text of Septuagint to a ruler generally). Later the worship of God by foreigners from a distance was contemplated and encouraged (1 Kings 8:41-43; Isaiah 2:2 f; Isaiah 56:3, 6 f; etc.), while the case of Naaman shows that a foreigner might worship Him abroad (2 Kings 5:17). A resident foreigner was of course a ger. The distinction between these three words is perhaps best seen in Exodus 12:43, 45, 48 f. in the first of these verses we have ben nekhar, used to cover "alien" generally; in the last the ger is contemplated as likely to undergo a complete naturalization; while in Exodus 12:45 the toshabh is regarded as certain to be outside the religious society.

1. Marriage: In the earlier period marriages with foreigners are common, though disliked (e.g. Genesis 24:3; 27:46 ff; Numbers 12:1; Judges 14:3, etc.). The Law provides for some unions of this kind (Deuteronomy 21:10 ff; compare Numbers 31:18), but later Judaism became more stringent. Moses required the high priest to marry a virgin of his own people (Leviticus 21:14); Ezekiel limited all descendants of Zadok to wives of the house of Israel (44:22); Ezra and Nehemiah carried on a vigorous polemic against the intermarriage of any Jew with foreign women (Ezra 10:1-44; Nehemiah 13:23-31).

2. Exclusion of Some Races from Assembly: Deuteronomy further takes up a hostile attitude to Ammonites and Moabites, excluding them from the assembly of the Lord even to the tenth generation, while the children of the third generation of Edomites and Egyptians could enter it (23:3-8 (Hebrews 4:1-16-9)). From 1 Kings 9:20, 21, 24; 1 Chronicles 22:2 we learn of the existence of foreign quarters in Israel.

IV. The Zar. The remaining word zar means "stranger" and takes its coloring from the context. It may mean "stranger in blood," e.g. non-Aaronite (Numbers 16:40 (Hebrews 17:5)), or non-Levite (e.g. Numbers 1:51), or a non-member of some other defined family (Deuteronomy 25:5). In opposition to priest it means "lay" (Leviticus 22:10-13), and when the contrast is with holy, it denotes "profane" (Exodus 30:9).

See FOREIGNER; GENTILES; PROSELYTE; CHERETHITES; PELETHITES; MARRIAGE; COMMERCE.

Harold M. Wiener

Strangled

Strangled - stran'-g'-ld (chanaq; pniktos, from verb pnigo, "to choke," "to smother," "to strangle" (compare choking of swine in the lake, Mark 5:13; the seed are choked by the thorns, Matthew 13:7; the servant takes his fellow-servant by the throat, the King James Version Matthew 18:28)): As adjective "strangled," used of animals deprived of life by choking, and so without the shedding of the blood. Flesh thus killed was forbidden as food among the Hebrews, because it contained the blood (Leviticus 17:12). Even Jewish Christians in the Jerusalem council thought it best to forbid things strangled to be eaten by Gentile converts, so as not to give offense to Jewish sentiment, and doubtless also to prevent participation in heathen sacrificial feasts (Acts 15:20; 21:25).

Edward Bagby Pollard

Strangling

Strangling - stran'-g'-ling.

See PUNISHMENTS.

Straw; Stubble

Straw; Stubble - stro, stub'-'-l: The cognates of Hebrew tebhen, "straw" and qash, "stubble," have been retained in the modern Arabic terms tibn and qashsh. Tibn applies to the straw which has been cut up into short pieces and more or less split by the threshing operations. It is commonly used throughout the East as a coarse fodder or roughage for domestic herbivorous animals (compare Genesis 24:25, 32; Judges 19:19; 1 Kings 4:28; Isaiah 11:7; 65:25). Hay and similar cured crops are practically unknown. Barley, peas and other grain, when fed to animals, are mixed with the tibn. The animals will frequently reject the tibn unless there is grain in it. They often nose about the tibn until the grain settles to the bottom so that they can eat the latter without the straw. Straw left in the manger is thrown out in the stall to form part of the bedding (compare Isaiah 25:10).

Tibn is mixed with clay for plastering walls or for making sun-dried bricks. It is also mixed with lime and sand for plastering. The children of Israel had their task of brickmaking made more arduous by being required to gather stubble and prepare it by chopping it up instead of being given the already prepared straw of the threshing-floors (Exodus 5:7 ff).

Qashsh (literally, "dried up") refers to the stalks left standing in the wheat fields or to any dried-up stalks or stems such as are gathered for burning. Camels and other flocks sometimes supplement their regular meals by grazing on the stubble, otherwise it has no use. In the Bible stubble is used to typify worthless inflammable material (Exodus 15:7; Job 13:25; Job 41:28-29; Psalms 83:13; Isaiah 5:24, etc.; 1 Corinthians 3:12, kalame).

mathben, is translated "straw" in Isaiah 25:10.

James A. Patch

Strawed

Strawed - strod: Past participle of "to strew," "scatter," or "spread about," as powder (of the golden calf, Exodus 32:20, the Revised Version (British and American) "strewed"); branches (Matthew 21:8, the Revised Version (British and American) "spread"); seed (Matthew 25:24, 26, the Revised Version (British and American) "scatter").

Stream

Stream - strem: (1) nachal, English Versions of the Bible "stream," as: "Behold, he smote the rock, so that waters gushed out, and streams overflowed" (Psalms 78:20). Often "valley," as "the valley (the King James Version "river") of the Arnon" (Deuteronomy 2:24); or "brook," as "the brook (the King James Version "river") of Egypt" (Joshua 15:4; see BROOK or EGYPT); or "river," as "the river Kishon" (Judges 4:7). (2) nahar (Aramaic nehar (Daniel 7:10); compare Arabic nahr, "river"): "He bindeth the streams," the King James Version "floods" (Job 28:11); "the River" (Euphrates) (Exodus 23:31, etc.); "Abanah and Pharpar, the rivers of Damascus" (2 Kings 5:12). (3) pelegh, the root palagh, "to split," "to divide," hence, "cleft," "channel": "a tree planted by the streams (the King James Version "rivers") of water" (Psalms 1:3); "There is a river, the streams whereof make glad the city of God" (Psalms 46:4); but: "The king's heart is .... as the watercourses" (the King James Version "rivers of water") (Proverbs 21:1). (4) 'aphiq, the root 'aphaq, "to be strong," hence, "channel," "valley," as holding, confining (BDB): "the streams in the South" (Psalms 126:4); elsewhere "brook," as "the brooks (the King James Version "rivers") of Judah" (Joel 3:18); or "channel," as "the channel of brooks" (Job 6:15); or "watercourses" (the Revised Version margin "ravines," the King James Version "rivers") (Ezekiel 6:3, etc.). (5) ye'or, from Egyptian 'iotr, 'io'r, especially of the Nile, as: "Seven other kine came up after them out of the river" (Genesis 41:3); the Revised Version (British and American) "stream," the King James Version "river" (Exodus 7:19; 8:5);, the Revised Version (British and American) "stream," the King James Version "brook"; "The streams (margin "canals") of Egypt shall be diminished and dried up" (Isaiah 19:6). (6) yabhal, the root yabhal, "to bear along": "brooks and streams of waters" (Isaiah 30:25); compare yabhal, "river," "that spreadeth out its roots by the river" (Jeremiah 17:8); 'ubhal, "the river Ulai" (Daniel 8:2). (7) nazal, "to flow," "to trickle": "He brought streams also out of the rock" (Psalms 78:16). (8) 'eshedh, "the slope of the valleys," the King James Version "the stream of the brooks" (Numbers 21:15); compare 'ashedhoth, "the slopes" (Joshua 10:40); "the slopes (margin "springs") of Pisgah" (Deuteronomy 3:17). (9) potamos, "The stream brake against that house" (Luke 6:48-49); elsewhere "river," as "the river Jordan" (Mark 1:5). (10) kludon, "stream," the King James Version Wisdom of Solomon 19:7 (the Revised Version (British and American) "surge").

See BROOK; CANALS; CHANNEL; RIVER; VALE; WATERCOURSE.

Alfred Ely Day

Street

Street - stret.

See CITY.

Strength, of Israel

Strength, of Israel - strength: For "the strength of the children of Israel," applied to Yahweh in the King James Version Joel 3:16, the Revised Version (British and American) reads "a stronghold to the children of Israel."

Strike

Strike - strik: The verbs "to strike" and "to stroke" (latter not in English Versions) have the same derivation, and originally "strike" was the intrans, "stroke" the transitive form. "Strike" however, became used in both senses (always transitive in English Versions of the Bible), while "to stroke" took on the meaning "to, rub gently." But in the King James Version this last force still belonged sometimes to "strike" and is so found in 2 Kings 5:11, "strike his hand over the place" (the Revised Version (British and American) "wave"), and perhaps Exodus 12:7, 22; Tobit 11:11 Otherwise AV's uses of the simple "strike" are modern, including "strike sail" (Acts 27:17; here and in Tobit 11:11 with an archaic preterite "strake," elsewhere "struck"). The Revised Version's "They lowered the gear" is a more precise translation, not a modernizing of the King James Version's English. The combination "to strike through," however, is not modern English, and was used by the King James Version as meaning either "to pierce" (Judges 5:26; Job 20:24; Proverbs 7:23; Lamentations 4:9), or, as an intensive, "to strike violently," "to crush" (Psalms 110:5). The Revised Version (British and American) has attempted to distinguish only in Habakkuk 3:14, "pierce," margin "smite." "Striking hands" is a common custom at the conclusion of a bargain (Additions to Esther 14:8), but in Job 17:3; Proverbs 6:1; 17:18; 22:26; the Revised Version margin 11:15, the ceremony is used technically for an agreement to be surety for another. Striking (the Revised Version margin "firing") stones to produce a fire is mentioned (2 Maccabees 10:3).

The past participle of "strike" is stricken (modern English "struck") (compare Proverbs 23:35; Jeremiah 5:3; Lamentations 4:9). So Isaiah 1:5, "Why will ye be still stricken?" is equivalent to "Why should ye receive any more blows?" (compare Isaiah 16:7; 4, 8 margin). But in the phrase "stricken in age" (Genesis 18:11, etc.) "strike" has an older meaning, "advance."

Striker is found in 1 Timothy 3:3; Titus 1:7 as a literal translation of plektes. A hot-tempered man, prone to physical outbursts, is meant. A stroke is simply a"blow," but in Deuteronomy 17:8; 21:5, "stroke" is used technically for "assault."

Burton Scott Easton

Stringed, Instruments

Stringed, Instruments - stringd.

See MUSIC.

Stripes

Stripes - strips.

See PUNISHMENTS.

Strive

Strive - striv.

See GAMES,II , 2.

Stronghold

Stronghold - strong'-hold.

See FORTIFIED CITIES ,IV , 1.

Stubble

Stubble - stub'-'-l (qash (Exodus 5:12, etc.); kalame (Wisdom of Solomon 3:7; 1 Corinthians 3:12)): These Hebrew and Greek forms are used of the stalks of wheat, etc., left knee-high in the field by the reapers. tebhen (Job 21:18), is a mixture of chopped straw and chaff produced in threshing, which is winnowed out by the fan (compare Jeremiah 23:28; Isaiah 5:24; Matthew 3:12). When tebhen was withheld from them the Israelites had to utilize qash for the manufacture of their bricks (Exodus 5:12).

Studs

Studs - studz (nequddoth, "engraving," "stud"): Ornaments consisting of small silver points which it was proposed (Song of Solomon 1:11) to affix to the new golden "plaits" (the Revised Version) or "borders" (the King James Version), and which were to replace the strung beads of the bride's necklace.

Stuff

Stuff - stuf (keli; skeuos): "Material" for any purpose (Ezekiel 12:3-4, 7); or "supplies" in a more general sense (Exodus 36:7, Hebrew mela'-khah; compare the King James Version, the English Revised Version 1 Samuel 10:22; 25:13; 30:24 (the American Standard Revised Version substitutes "baggage")); frequently, "household possessions" (Genesis 31:37; 45:20; Exodus 22:7; Joshua 7:11; Nehemiah 13:8; Judith 16:19; the King James Version Judith 15:11 (skeuasmata, the Revised Version (British and American) "furniture"); the King James Version Luke 17:31, where the Revised Version (British and American) reads "goods"). "Mingled stuff" is the translation of sha'aTnez in the Revised Version (British and American) instead of "garment of divers sorts" the King James Version (Deuteronomy 22:11).

Stumbling-block; Stumbling-stone

Stumbling-block; Stumbling-stone - stum'-bling-blok, (mikhshol, makhshelah; proskomma, skandalon): These are the most important of the varied renderings of either of two cognate Hebrew words, or of two different Greek words. Sometimes the Greek word for "stone" (lithos) accompanies the principal word. There is no important difference in the meaning of the words or of their renderings. the Revised Version (British and American) generally substitutes "stumbling" for "offence" of the King James Version.

The literal meaning of the Hebrew words--an object which causes one to stumble or fall--appears in such passages as Leviticus 19:14: "Thou shalt not .... put a stumblingblock (mikhshol) before the blind" (compare Jeremiah 6:21). But the expression is ordinarily figurative, referring to that which causes material ruin or spiritual downfall, which were closely connected in Old Testament thought (Psalms 119:165; Ezekiel 21:15). The things that lead astray are silver and gold (Ezekiel 7:19); idols (Ezekiel 14:3; Zephaniah 1:3, etc.).

One of the New Testament words, skandalon, literally means the stick of a trap to which the bait is attached, and which when touched springs the trap. Figuratively either word refers to a thing or a person that leads one to fall into error, into sin or into destruction: the cross of Christ (Galatians 5:11; Romans 11:9); another's liberty (1 Corinthians 8:9); Peter in Matthew 16:23; Christ, whose life and character were so different from Jewish expectation (Romans 9:33).

Sua

Sua - su'-a (Soua; the King James Version, Sud): Name of a family of temple-servants who went up from exile with Zerubbabel (1 Esdras 5:29) = "Sia" of Nehemiah 7:47; "Siaha" of Ezra 2:44.

Suah

Suah - su'-a (cuach): Son of Zophah, of the tribe of Asher (1 Chronicles 7:36).

Subai

Subai - su'-ba-i, su'-bi (Subaei): Name of a family of temple-servants who returned with Zerubbabel (1 Esdras 5:30) = "Shamlai" of Ezra 2:46; "Salmai" of Nehemiah 7:48.

Sub-apostolic Literature

Sub-apostolic Literature - See LITERATURE, SUB-APOSTOLIC.

Subas

Subas - su'-bas (Soubas; the King James Version, Suba): Name of a family of "the sons of the servants of Solomon" returning with Zerubbabel (1 Esdras 5:34), wanting in the parallel lists of Ezra 2:57; Nehemiah 7:59.

Suborn

Suborn - sub-orn' (hupoballo (Acts 6:11; only here in the New Testament)): The word means to introduce by collusion, to put one person in the place of another, to employ anyone in a secret manner and instruct such a one to act for and as though he were another person.

Substance

Substance - sub'-stans (rekhush; hupostasis): Lit. that which stands under, is in the Bible used chiefly of material goods and possessions. In the Old Testament it is the translation of numerous Hebrew words, of which rekhush, "that which is gathered together," is one of the earliest and most significant (Genesis 12:5; 13:6; 15:14; 1 Chronicles 27:31; Ezra 8:21, etc.). In the New Testament "substance" appears in a few passages as the translation of ousia, "being," "subsistence" (Luke 15:13), huparxis, "goods," "property" (Hebrews 10:34), huparchonta, "things at hand" (Luke 8:3). Special interest attaches to Hebrews 11:1, the King James Version "Now faith is the substance of things hoped for," etc., where the word is used in its proper etymological sense as the translation of hupostasis, "that which stands under." the Revised Version (British and American) changes to "assurance," margin "the giving substance to," which last seems best to bring out the idea of faith as that which makes the things hoped for real to the soul. The same Greek word hupostasis is rendered "substance" in Hebrews 1:3 the Revised Version (British and American), instead of the King James Version "person," with reference to Christ, "the very image (margin "impress") of his substance," i.e. of God's invisible essence or being, the manifestation of God Himself.

W. L. Walker

Subtil; Subtle; Subtlety; Subtilty

Subtil; Subtle; Subtlety; Subtilty - sub'-til, sut'-'-l, sut'-'-l-ti (chakham, nakhal, mirmah; dolos): These words are used (1) in a good sense: 2 Samuel 13:3, chakham, "wise," "Jonadab was a very subtle (the American Standard Revised Version "subtle") man" (discreet); Proverbs 1:4, `ormah, "prudence," "to give subtlety to the simple," the American Standard Revised Version and the English Revised Version margin "prudence"; Wisdom of Solomon 7:22, leptos, "thin," said of the spirit in Wisdom (very fine or refined); 8:8, strophe, "winding," "subtilties of speeches"; Ecclesiasticus 39:2, "subtil parables," the Revised Version (British and American) "the subtleties of parables"; (2) in a bad sense: Genesis 3:1, `arum, "crafty," "Now the serpent was more subtle than any beast of the field," the American Standard Revised Version "subtle."

Genesis 27:35, mirmah, "deceit," "fraud," "Thy brother came with subtlety," the Revised Version (British and American) "with guile"; Psalms 105:25, nakhal, "to deceive," the King James Version "deal subtlely," the American Standard Revised Version "subtly"; Proverbs 7:10, natsar, "to watch," "guard," "to be hidden or subtle of heart," the Revised Version (British and American) "wily," margin " `close,' Hebrew `guarded'"; 2 Kings 10:19, `oqebhah, "deceit" or "treachery" (here only); Judith 5:11, katasophizo, "to use subtlety"; Ecclesiasticus 19:25, panourgia, "cunning," "unscrupulousness," "There is an exquisite subtlety, and the same is unjust"; 2 Corinthians 11:3, "The serpent beguiled Eve through his subtlety," the Revised Version (British and American) "in his craftiness"; Matthew 26:4, dolos, "deceit," "that they might take Jesus by subtlety, and kill him"; Acts 13:10, "O full of all subtlety and all mischief," the Revised Version (British and American) "all guile and all villany."

English Revised Version has "subtilty" for "wisdom" (Proverbs 8:5, 12), margin and the American Standard Revised Version, "prudence"; for "with subtlety" (the English Revised Version Mark 14:1, the King James Version "by craft") the American Standard Revised Version has "with subtlety."

W. L. Walker

Suburbs

Suburbs - sub'-urbz.

See CITY.

Subvert

Subvert - sub-vurt' (`awath; anatrepo): Occurs 5 t: (1) in the sense of overturning, etc., as the translation of `awath, "to make bent or crooked" (Lamentations 3:36), "to subvert a man in his cause"; of anaskeudzo, primarily, "to pack up baggage"; then, "to ravage," etc. (Acts 15:24, "subverting your souls"); of anatrepo, "to turn upside down," "to overturn" (Titus 1:11, "who subvert whole houses," the Revised Version (British and American) "overthrow"); of katastrophe, "overthrow," "destruction" (2 Timothy 2:14, "to the subverting of them that hear"); (2) in the sense of perverting: ekstrepho, "to turn or twist out" "to turn about" (Titus 3:11, "such is subverted," the Revised Version (British and American) "perverted"). For "overthrown me" (Job 19:6) the Revised Version (British and American) has "subverted me (in my cause)," margin "overthrown me"; for "perverteth" (Proverbs 19:3), "subverteth."

W. L. Walker

Sucathites

Sucathites - su'kath-its (sukhathim; Codex Vaticanus Sochathieim; Codex Alexandrinus Sokathieim; the King James Version Suchathites): These are named only once (1 Chronicles 2:55), a family of scribes living at Jabez.

Succeed; Success

Succeed; Success - suk-sed', suk-ses' (yarash, sakhal; euemeria): "To succeed" means, (1) and originally, "to follow after"; (2) mostly in modern English, "to prosper"; in the King James Version, with one exception, the word has a qualifying adjective. (1) In the first sense it is the translation of yarash, "to seize" or "to take possession" (Deuteronomy 2:12; 12:29, the American Standard Revised Version "dispossessest," the English Revised Version "possessest"); of qum, "to rise up" (Deuteronomy 25:6, "shall succeed in the name of his brother"); of diadechomai (Ecclesiasticus 48:8, "prophets to succeed after him"). (2) In the sense of prospering, "success" is the translation of sakhal, "to be wise," "to prosper" (Joshua 1:8, "Thou shalt have good success," the King James Version margin "do wisely," the Revised Version margin "deal wisely"; compare the King James Version margin Job 22:2; Psalms 111:10; Proverbs 3:4); "good success" occurs in Tobit 7:12, euodosei ta kallista; Wisdom of Solomon 13:19, epituchia; Ecclesiasticus 20:9, euodia, the Revised Version (British and American) "prosperity," "There is a prosperity that a man findeth in misfortunes; and there is a gain that turneth to loss"; Ecclesiasticus 38:13, euodia (so Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Ephraemi--this word = "sweet savior," "fragrance"; compare Philippians 4:18; Ephesians 5:2; 2 Corinthians 2:15). See further EUODIA. the Revised Version (British and American) "the issue for good" 1 Maccabees 4:55, euodoo; 8:23, kalos, etc. "Success," simply (as "prosperity," euemeria), 2 Maccabees 10:28, "a pledge of success and victory"; "successor" occurs (Ecclesiasticus 46:1, "Joshua .... was the successor diadochos of Moses"; 2 Maccabees 9:23; 14:26).

W. L. Walker

Succor; Succorer

Succor; Succorer - suk'-er, suk'-er-er ('azar; boetheo, prostatis): Is the translation of 'azar, "to gird" (2 Samuel 8:5, etc.); of boetheo, "to come in aid of" (2 Corinthians 6:2, "In a day of salvation did I succor thee"; Hebrews 2:18, "He is able to succor them that are tempted"); of prostatis, "one standing before" (Romans 16:2, the American Standard Revised Version "helper of many"); of antilepsis (Ecclesiasticus 51:7, the King James Version "I looked for the succour of men, but there was none"); of phugadeuterion (1 Maccabees 1:53, "flee for succor," the Revised Version (British and American) "place of refuge"); of sozo (1 Maccabees 2:44, "for succor," the Revised Version (British and American) "for safety"); of skepe (2 Maccabees 5:9, the Revised Version (British and American) "shelter"); "succors" occurs (Wisdom of Solomon 17:12, the King James Version boethema, "for fear is nothing else but a betraying (the Revised Version (British and American) "surrender") of the succours which reason offereth"); "succoreth" (1 Maccabees 12:15, boetheo, "help from heaven that succoureth us," the Revised Version (British and American) "to help us"). the Revised Version (British and American) has "succor" for "help" (1 Chronicles 18:5); "O thou my succor," for "O my strength" (Psalms 22:19).

W. L. Walker

Succoth (1)

Succoth (1) - suk'-oth, suk'-oth (cukkoth, "booths"; Skenai, Sokchoth, etc.): After parting with Esau, Jacob journeyed to Succoth, a name which he gave to the place from the "booths" which he erected to shelter his cattle (Genesis 33:17). It was in the territory of Gad, and is mentioned with Beth-nimrah (Joshua 13:27). In his pursuit of Zeba and Zalmunnah, Gideon seems to have retraced the path followed by Jacob, passing Succoth before Penuel (Judges 8:5 ff). Their churlishness on that occasion brought dire punishment upon the men of Succoth. Gideon on his return "taught them" with thorns and briers (Judges 8:16). In the soil of the valley between Succoth and Zarethan, which was suitable for the purpose, the brass castings of the furniture for Solomon's Temple were made (1 Kings 7:46; 2 Chronicles 4:17). Jerome (on Genesis 33:17) says that in his day it was a city beyond Jordan in the district of Scythopolis. From the above data it is clear that Succoth lay on the East of the Jordan and North of the Jabbok. From Psalms 60:6; 108:7, we may infer that it was close to the Jordan valley, part of which was apparently known by its name. Neubauer (Geog. du Talmud, 248) gives the Talmudic name as Tar`ala. Merrill (East of the Jordan, 386) and others compare this with Tell Deir `Alla, the name of an artificial mound about a mile North of the Jabbok, on the edge of the valley, fully 4 miles East of the Jordan. There is a place called Sakut West of the Jordan, about 10 miles South of Beisan. This has been proposed by some; but it is evident that Succoth lay East of the river. No trace of the name has been found here.

W. Ewing

Succoth (2)

Succoth (2) - (cukkoth; Sokchoth (Exodus 12:37; 13:20; Numbers 33:5)): The first station of the Hebrews on leaving Rameses (see EXODUS). The word means "booths." The distance from ETHAM (which see) suggests that the site may have lain in the lower part of Wady Tumeilat, but the exact position is unknown. This region seems possibly to have been called T-K-u by the Egyptians (see PITHOM). Brugsch and other scholars suppose this term to have been changed to Succoth by the Old Testament writer, but this is very doubtful, Succoth being a common Hebrew word, while T-K-u is Egyptian The Hebrew "c" does not appear ever to be rendered by "t" in Egyptian. The capital of the Sethroitic nome was called T-K-t (Pierret, Vocab. hieroglyph., 697), and this word means "bread." If the region of T-K-u was near this town, it would seem to have lain on the shore road from Edom to Zoan, in which case it could not be the Succoth of the Exodus.

C. R. Conder

Succoth-benoth

Succoth-benoth - suk'-oth, suk'-oth-be'-noth, be'-noth (cukkoth benoth; Rhochchothbaineithei, Codex Alexandrinus (better) Sokchothbenithei):

1. The Meaning according to the Hebrew: The name of an idol made by the Babylonians sent into exile at Samaria by an Assyrian king (Shalmaneser), and mentioned among the deities of the various nationalities there assembled (2 Kings 17:30). In Hebrew, Succoth-benoth means "booths of daughters," and has been explained as the chambers wherein the Babylonians placed women for prostitution; or booths or tabernacles in which images of certain goddesses were worshipped.

2. Sir H. Rawlinson's Identification of the Name: The parallelism, however, requires a deity, like the Nergal of the Cutheans, the Ashima of the Hamathites, etc., and not a chamber or shrine. This consideration caused Sir H. to suggest an identification of Succoth-benoth with the Babylonian Zer-panitum (= Zer-banitum), whose name was probably pronounced Zer-panith, the spouse of Merodach (the god of Babylon), as the "seed-creatress." The difference in the first component, zer, was regarded as due to its possible Hamitic (= Sumerian) equivalent, or to a Semitic mistranslation, both of which explanations are now known to be untenable.

3. Is Succoth the Babylonian Sakut?: As the people who made Succoth-benoth were Babylonians, we should expect here either a name of Merodach, the god of Babylon, or one of the deities identified with him. At present the only suggestion which can be made is that Benoth is for ban wath, i.e. ban'(i) mati, "creator of the land." Both the Semitic and the bilingual creation-stories speak of Merodach as the creator of the world, with its products, and the great cities of Babylonia; and "father Enlil," who bore the title "lord of the world," bestowed the same upon Merodach at the creation, thus identifying Merodach with himself. Now there is a group which may be read either Dikut, "the Judge," or Sakut, "the Counselor," and if we can read Succoth-benoth as Sakut(h)ban' wat(h), "the Counselor, creator of the land," a satisfactory explanation of this puzzling name will be furnished. The terminal -i of the Babylonian has been preserved in the ei, of the Greek. The adoption of such a descriptive name of Enlil-Merodach would form a compromise between abandoning their old objects of worship and accepting "the god of the land" (2 Kings 17:26).

T. G. Pinches

Suchathites

Suchathites - su'-kath-its.

See SUCATHITES.

Sud

Sud - sud: The King James Version = the Revised Version (British and American) SUA (which see).

Sudias

Sudias - su'-di-as (Soudias): In 1 Esdras 5:23, a Levitical family that returned with Zerubbabel, called in Ezra 2:40 "Hodaviah" and in Nehemiah 7:43 "Hodevah" (which see).

Suffering

Suffering - suf'-er-ing: A great variety of Hebrew and Greek expressions, too large to be here enumerated, have been translated by "suffering" and other forms derived from the same verb. The most obvious meanings of the word are the following: (1) The commonest meaning perhaps in the English Versions of the Bible is "to permit," "to allow," "to give leave to": "Moses suffered to write a bill of divorcement, and to put her away" (Mark 10:4). (2) "To experience," "to go through,"' "to endure": "I have suffered many things this day in a dream because of him" (Matthew 27:19). A woman "had suffered many things of many physicians" (Mark 5:26). Other common phrases are "to suffer affliction" (1 Thessalonians 3:4; Hebrews 11:25, the Revised Version (British and American) "share ill-treatment"), "to suffer hardship" (2 Timothy 2:9), "to suffer adversity" (Hebrews 13:3 the King James Version, the Revised Version (British and American) "to be ill-treated"), "to suffer dishonor" (the King James Version "shame," Acts 5:41), "to suffer violence," (Matthew 11:12), "to suffer wrong" (Acts 7:24), "to suffer terror" (Psalms 88:15), "to suffer shipwreck" (2 Corinthians 11:25), "to suffer hunger" (Psalms 34:10; Proverbs 19:15), "to suffer thirst" (Job 24:11). (3) "To put up with," "to tolerate": the King James Version, "For ye suffer fools gladly (the Revised Version (British and American) "ye bear with the foolish gladly"), seeing ye yourselves are wise" (2 Corinthians 11:1, 9). (4) "To undergo punishment": "Think ye that these Galileans were sinners above all the Galileans, because they have suffered these things?" (Luke 13:2). (5) "To sustain loss": "If any man's work shall be burned, he shall suffer loss" (1 Corinthians 3:15; also Philippians 3:8). (6) "To suffer death." Here the clearest references are to the suffering or passion of Christ, which indeed includes the enduring of untold hardships and affliction, all of which culminate in His vicarious death for man (Matthew 16:21; Mark 8:31; 9:12; Luke 9:22; 17:25; 22:15; 26, 46; Acts 3:18; 17:3; 26:23; 1 Peter 3:18).

Suffering belongs to the discipline of all Christ's followers (Romans 8:17; 2 Corinthians 1:7; Galatians 3:4; Philippians 3:10; 1 Thessalonians 2:2; 2 Thessalonians 1:5; 2 Timothy 2:12; 3:12; James 5:10; 1 Peter 2:20 f; 1 Peter 3:14, 17; 1, 13, 16; 5:10). Such suffering is called a suffering for God's or Christ's sake (Jeremiah 15:15; Acts 9:16; Philippians 1:29; 2 Timothy 1:12). This fellowship in suffering unites us with the saints of God in all times (James 5:10), and is indeed a fellowship with the Lord Himself (Philippians 3:10), who uses this discipline to mold us more and more according to His character.

H. L. E. Luering

Suffocation

Suffocation - suf-o-ka'-shun.

See PUNISHMENTS.

Suicide

Suicide - su'-i-sid.

See CRIMES .

Sukkiim

Sukkiim - suk'-i-im (cukkiyim): Named in 2 Chronicles 12:3 as a tribe that took part with Libyans and Cretans in the invasion of Judea by Shishak. The identification is uncertain.

Sulphur

Sulphur - sul'-fur.

See BRIMSTONE.

Summer

Summer - sum'-er (qayits; Aramaic qayiT (Daniel 2:35), from quts quT, "to cut off," "to pluck or gather fruit," hence, the time of fruit, summer (2 Samuel 16:1-2; Jeremiah 40:10, 12); theros (Matthew 24:32; Luke 21:30)): The Hebrew verb, mentioned above, occurs in Isaiah 18:6, "to summer," used of the ravenous birds feeding upon carcasses of the slain. The term "summer parlor" in Judges 3:20 (compare Judges 3:24) is literally, "upper room," and is so rendered in the Revised Version (British and American). The summer was the dry season extending from April to October when usually no rain falls. Hence, the "drought of summer" (Psalms 32:4).

See SEASONS.

H. Porter

Summer-house

Summer-house - (beth ha-qayits): Amos 3:15 notes it as part of the judgment on Israel that Yahweh would smite "the winter-house with the summer-house." It belonged to the luxury of the period that kings and wealthy persons had separate residences for the cold and hot seasons. This is the only mention of "the summer-house," but Eglon's "cool upper room" (Judges 3:20, the King James Version and the English Revised Version "summer parlour," not in this case a separate building) may be compared.

See WINTER-HOUSE.

Sun (1)

Sun (1) - See ASTRONOMY, sec. I, 2.

Sun (2)

Sun (2) - (Figurative): Poetical conceptions for the sun are frequently found in the Scriptures, though the strictly figurative expressions are not common. Undoubtedly the Jewish festivals, religious as well as agricultural, were determined by the sun's movements, and this fact, together with the poetical nature of the Hebrews and their lack of scientific knowledge, had a tendency. to multiply spiritual and metaphorical expressions concerning the "greater light" of the heavens. Some of these poetical conceptions are very beautiful, such as the sun having a habitation (Habakkuk 3:11), a tabernacle (Psalms 19:4 f) set for him by Yahweh, out of which he comes as a bridegroom from his chamber, rejoicing as a strong man to run a race. The sun is also given as the emblem of constancy (Psalms 72:5, 17), of beauty (Song of Solomon 6:10), of the law of God (Psalms 19:7), of the purity of heavenly beings (Revelation 1:16; 12:1), and of the presence and person of God (Psalms 84:11). The ancient world given to personifying the sun did not refrain from sun-worship, and even the Hebrew in the time of the kings came perilously near this idolatry (2 Kings 23:11).

See SUN-WORSHIP.

C. E. Schenk

Sun Gate

Sun Gate - See EAST GATE.

Sun, Chariots of The

Sun, Chariots of The - See HORSES OF THE SUN.

Sun, Horses of The

Sun, Horses of The - See HORSES OF THE SUN.

Sun, Smiting by

Sun, Smiting by - smit'-ing: Exposure of the uncovered head to the heat of the sun is likely to produce either of two conditions; the commoner is heat exhaustion with faintness, the rarer is heatstroke with fever and paralysis of the heat-regulating apparatus of the nervous system. This condition is described as siriasis. The two fatal instances recorded were probably of the latter kind. One, the case of the Shunammite's son (2 Kings 4:19), was apparently very acute, like some of the cases described by Manson and Sambon. Of the other case, that of Manasseh, Judith's husband, we have no particulars (Judith 8:3), except that it was likewise brought on by exposure in the harvest field, and occurred at the time of barley harvest, that is, early in May. Jonah's attack was one of heat syncope, as he fainted from the heat (Jonah 4:8). According both to psalmist (Psalms 121:6) and to prophet (Isaiah 49:10), the people of God are protected from the stroke of the sun as well as from that of the moon. The latter was supposed to cause lunacy (hence, the name), and epilepsy, so in Matthew 4:24 the word rendered "lunatic" (the King James Version) for "epileptic" (Revised Version) is seleniazomenous, literally, "moon struck."

See MOON.

Alexander Macalister

Sunday

Sunday - sun'-da.

See LORD'S DAY.

Sun-images

Sun-images - See IMAGES.

Sunrising

Sunrising - sun'-riz-ing: A frequent designationin the Old Testament for the East (Numbers 21:11; Deuteronomy 4:41, 47; Joshua 1:15, etc.). In Revelation 7:2, the Revised Version (British and American) has "sunrising" for the King James Version "east."

Sunstroke

Sunstroke - sun'-strok.

See SUN, SMITING BY.

Sun-worship

Sun-worship - sun'-wur-ship: The splendor of the sun makes it a natural object of adoration, once the purer idea of the one true God (Romans 1:20-21) is parted with, and in most ancient nations the worship of the sun was an outstanding feature. It is found in Babylonian and Assyrian (Samas; special seats of sun-worship were Sippara and Larsa); in Egypt it is a leading feature of the religion (Ra, and, under special phases, Horus, Tum, Aten; a special seat of sun-worship was Heliopollis, the Old Testament On, called in Jeremiah 43:13 Beth-shemesh, "house of the sun"). Other cities bore the same name: Beth-shemesh (Joshua 15:10 = Ir-shemesh; Joshua 19:41, in Judah; Joshua 19:22, in Issachar; Joshua 19:38, in Naphtali; see BETH-SHEMESH). Allusions to, and warnings against, sun-worship are frequent in the Old Testament, as in Leviticus 26:30; 2 Chronicles 14:5; 4, 7; Isaiah 17:8; 27:9; Ezekiel 6:4, 6, in which passages for the King James Version "images," "idols," the Revised Version (British and American) has "sun-images" (which see); Job 31:26-27 and numerous passages show that this form of idolatry latterly penetrated deeply into Judah--even into its temple-worship (2 Kings 23:5, 11, "horses .... given to the sun" (see under HORSES OF THE SUN,

"Chariots of the Sun"); and Ezekiel 8:16). Josiah's reformation took account of these abuses (2 Kings 23:5, 11 ff; 2 Chronicles 34:4, 7), and Ezekiel strenuously denounced them (2 Chronicles 8:16 ff).

James Orr

Sup; Supper

Sup; Supper - sup'-er.

See MEALS.

Superfluous; Superfluity

Superfluous; Superfluity - su-pur'-floo-us, su-per-floo'-i-ti (sara`; perissos (2 Corinthians 9:1), perisseia): According to the Levitical Law, "a blind man, or a lame, or he that hath a fiat nose, or anything superfluous" could not fulfill priestly functions (Leviticus 21:18; 22:23). According to Dillmann (Baentsch, BDB) the word should be rendered "a limb too long," but Ewald (following the Septuagint) suggests "having cropped ears." The only instance of superfluity occurs in James 1:21, the King James Version "superfluity of naughtiness"; according to Mayor "overflowing ebullition of malice" (the Revised Version (British and American) "overflowing of wickedness," margin "malice"); but the Greek word is used in other connections, e.g. of "grace" (Romans 5:17); "joy" (2 Corinthians 8:2).

T. Lewis

Superscription

Superscription - su-per-skrip'-shun (epigraphe): (1) The legend on a coin designating the person in whose honor or by whose authority it is issued (Matthew 22:20; Mark 12:16; Luke 20:24). (2) The accusation on the cross of Jesus (Mark 15:26; Luke 23:38). According to Roman custom an inscription bearing the charge or ground of a criminal's condemnation was fixed to the cross on which he was crucified. The use of such an inscription at the crucifixion of Jesus is mentioned by all four evangelists. The fullest description is that of Mark, "the superscription of his accusation" (he epigraphe tes aitias autou) (Luke 15:26). Matthew calls it more briefly "his accusation" (ten aitian autou) (27:38), while Luke styles it merely "a superscription" (epigraphe) (Luke 23:38). In the Fourth Gospel it is called a "title" (titlon) (John 19:19). The text of the superscription is given by the four evangelists in varying terms and with various degrees of fullness.

Russell Benjamin Miller

Superstition; Superstitious

Superstition; Superstitious - su-per-stish'-un; su-per-stish'-us (deisidaimonia, "fearing demons"): The Biblical use of these words is limited to that of the former in Acts 25:19 the King James Version, and of the latter in Acts 17:22. In the former reference, Festus speaks of the Jews' "superstition" (the Revised Version (British and American) "religion"), thus artfully dodging an avowal of his own convictions "respecting the Hebrew faith." In Acts 17:22 the King James Version Paul tactfully refers to the Athenians as being "too superstitious" (the Revised Version (British and American) "too religious"), thus using the term correctly from both their and his point of view. They were truly too "religious" with their superstitions.

Leonard W. Doolan

Suph

Suph - soof (cuph; plesion tes eruthras (thalasses); the King James Version Red Sea): As the verse stands, the place where Moses addressed the children of Israel is indicated as "beyond the Jordan in the wilderness, in the Arabah over against Suph" (Deuteronomy 1:1). the King James Version, following Septuagint, takes the name as a contraction of yam cuph (see RED SEA). The abbreviation is not found elsewhere. The name of the sea was not derived from that of a city; so we need not look in that direction. Knobel suggested Naqb es-Safa, a pass about 25 miles West-Southwest of the Dead Sea. But it is "unsuitably situated; nor does the name agree phonetically (for @@ ... agrees with ..., not with ...)" (Driver, "Deuteronomy," ICC, 4). No identification is possible.

W. Ewing

Suphah

Suphah - soo'-fa (suphah, for wahebh becuphah; Septuagint reads ten Zoob ephlogise; the King James Version Rea Sea): Suphah is the region in which Vaheb is situated (Numbers 21:14). It is probably identical with Suph of Deuteronomy 1:1. Tristram (Land of Moab, 50 f) suggested identification with Ghor es-Safiyeh], a small oasis East of the mud fiats of Es-Sebkhah], South of the Dead Sea; but "the sibilants do not correspond, and Safiyeh is a specifically Arabic term (Wetzstein in Delitzsch, Gen4, 586, note 2) which does not seem to be a likely explanation of Suphah" (Gray, "Nu," ICC, 285 f). This, and other questions of identification, must wait for solution until a more thorough exploration of the whole district has been accomplished.

W. Ewing

Supper

Supper - sup'-er.

See MEALS.

Supper, Lord's

Supper, Lord's - See LORD'S SUPPER.

Supply

Supply - su-pli': Philippians 4:19 for pleroo; 1 Corinthians 16:17; Philippians 2:30 for anapleroo; 2 Corinthians 9:12 (the King James Version); 2 Corinthians 11:9 for prosanapleroo. All three verbs mean "to fill," the 3rd containing the additional connotation "fill up to a certain point." Ephesians 4:16; Philippians 1:19 for the noun epichoregia, literally, "an additional supply." But no special force of "additional" seems to be contained in the passages. In 2 Corinthians 99:10a; Galatians 3:5; Colossians 2:9; 2 Peter 1:5, 11, we have epichoregeo, "to furnish besides," i.e. fully supply; in 2 Corinthians 99:10b; 1 Peter 4:11 the simple choregeo, "to furnish,"

Burton Scott Easton

Sur

Sur - sur (Codex Vaticanus Assour, Codex Alexandrinus Sour): Those that dwelt in Sur are mentioned along with the inhabitants of Sidon, Tyre, Ocina, etc., as dreading the approach of Holofernes and the Assyrian any (Judith 2:28). The names run from North to South, and Sur immediately follows Tyre (modern Sur]), with which, therefore, it can hardly be identified. No probable identification has been suggested.

Sure; Surely

Sure; Surely - shoor, shoor'-li: In modern English is used chiefly in the phrases "to be sure" or "to make sure," and as a simple adjective it is usually either archaic or exceedingly colloquial. The adjectival use, however, is common (chiefly for 'aman, "to confirm," and its derivatives) in English Versions of the Bible, where modern English would prefer "secure" or "certain" (1 Samuel 2:35; Sirach 40:25; Acts 13:34, etc.). "To be sure that" is also fairly common in the King James Version, and occasionally (as in Deuteronomy 12:23, "Be sure that thou eat not the blood," for chazaq, "to be firm") it has rather more emphasis than in modern English. But usually the phrase is a mere periphrasis for some word meaning "to know" (compare the Revised Version (British and American) Exodus 3:19; Luke 10:11; Romans 2:2, etc.). In Proverbs 6:3, the King James Version has "Make sure thy friend" for rahabh, "be boisterous" "beset" the Revised Version (British and American) "importune." The sense is "Force him to pay his debt."

Surely in English Versions of the Bible is used almost always to qualify an entire phrase, as in Genesis 28:16, "Surely Yahweh is in this place." In modern English "surely" used in this way suggests that the statement is being argued and is therefore slightly doubtful, but in Elizabethan English the purpose is to exclude all doubt ("beyond question"). With this force the King James Version uses "surely" to translate almost any emphatic form, and the Revised Version (British and American) has conformed to AV's use, and such changes as have been made by the Revised Version (British and American) (Matthew 26:73; Luke 4:23; Revelation 22:20, etc.) are merely to preserve uniformity of rendition. The most common use of "surely" in this sense is to translate a verb when emphasized by its own part. (absolute inf. in Hebrew), as "Thou shalt, surely die" (Genesis 2:17) for "dying thou shalt die" (compare Genesis 22:17 for the Hebrew construction). In this sense "surely" is sometimes varied by "of a surety" (Genesis 15:13, etc.) without the slightest difference in meaning (compare Genesis 9:5 and Genesis 26:9). In addition "surely" is used occasionally as a simple adverb where modern English would prefer "securely" or "certainly" (compare Proverbs 10:9 and the King James Version Luke 1:1, "surely believed," the Revised Version (British and American) "fulfilled," the Revised Version margin "fully established").

Surety, besides its use in "of a surety" appears, in the Old Testament to translate `arabh, "to be surety," and in Hebrews 7:22 for egguos, "guarantor," "giver of security." Modern English prefers "security," as does even the King James Version in Acts 17:9. "Suretiship" (the American Standard Revised Version "suretyship") in Proverbs 11:15 for taqa`, "to strike (hands)."

See STRIKE; SURETY.

Burton Scott Easton

Surety

Surety - shoor'-ti: This word is used in three different connections or groups:

(1) As a derivative of the word "sure" it means "of a certainty" or "surely."--In Genesis 15:13 the infinitive absolute of the verb is used to give emphasis to the idea of the verb and is rendered "of a surety." In Genesis 18:13 the Hebrew 'omnam is translated "of a surety." In Genesis 26:9 'akh is similarly rendered, and has the force of our "indeed." In Acts 12:11 alethos, is translated in the King James Version "of a surety," but better in the Revised Version (British and American) "of a truth."

(2) In the sense of security or pledge for a person.--This means that one person may become security for another, that such a one will do a certain thing at a time in the future. Judah was "surety" to his father Jacob that Benjamin would safely return from Egypt (Genesis 43:9). He pledged his life that the younger brother would return safely. He tells Joseph (Genesis 44:32) how he had become surety for Benjamin, and offers to become Joseph's slave for the sake of his brother. Job says (Job 17:3), "Give now a pledge, be surety for me with thyself; who is there that will strike hands with me?" The striking of hands refers to the action or gesture by which the surety or pledge was publicly manifested and thus ratified. Job here beseeches God to become surety for him, to pledge him that some time in the future He will cause Job's innocence to be made known and be acknowledged by God Himself. In Isaiah 38:14 Hezekiah says, "O Lord, I am oppressed, be thou my surety." He wishes God to give him a pledge of some kind, to go security for him in such a way that he will surely be saved out of his sickness and distress. Jesus is called "the surety (egguos) of a better covenant" (Hebrews 7:22). Jesus is the pledge or surety that through Him we may obtain the assurance and certainty that a more excellent covenant has been established by God, and are assured also of the truth of the promises connected with it.

(3) It is used to describe the practice of going security for another by striking hands with that person and becoming responsible for money or any object loaned.--The Book of Proverbs unhesitatingly condemns the practice. No mention is made of it in the Mosaic Law, as if the custom were then practically unknown. The Book of Proverbs makes no distinction between a stranger and a neighbor; the person who does such a thing is likened unto an animal caught in a trap. He is exhorted to sleep no more until he has got out of the trap, or freed himself from this obligation (Proverbs 6:1-5). The wisdom of such advice has been abundantly verified by experience. It does not necessarily preclude certain special cases, where the practice may be justified. The international relationships of the Jews in the period of the monarchy, together with the unsettled condition of the country (Nehemiah 5:3) and people, needed such commercial strictness. Their trade was mostly in the hands of the Phoenicians and other foreigners, and the pressure of taxation for the payment of foreign tribute, etc., was heavy (Nehemiah 5:4 f). Proverbs 11:15; 17:18 declare one "void of understanding" who thus goes security for another. Proverbs 20:16 seems to contain an exclamation of contemptuous rebuke for the man who goes security. Proverbs 22:26; 27:13 contain like admonitions.

See DEBT; PLEDGE;SECURITY ; STRIKE.

James Josiah Reeve

Surname

Surname - sur'-nam (kanah; epikalein): A word derived from the French., meaning "an additional name"; in modern English always the family name of a person. Indeed, the spelling "surname" in the King James Version 1 Maccabees 1:10; 2:2; 6:43 may be due to a confusion with "sire's name." But the custom of family names was entirely unknown among the Hebrews. The word is used twice in the King James Version of the Old Testament, namely, Isaiah 44:5; 45:4. The Hebrew word means "to give flattering or honorary titles." In the former passage foreigners are so envious of the prosperity of the Jews that they are anxious to be surnamed by the name of Israel, i.e. to be enrolled as members of the Jewish nation. In the latter case Yahweh gives Cyrus an honorary title, namely, "servant of Yahweh," and thus appoints him to be His instrument in the restoration of His people. The same word is rendered in Job 32:21, the King James Version "give flattering titles." Elihu declares his intention to examine the situation without fear or favor. He will not allow such high-sounding titles as "Your Worship" or "My Lord" to stand in his way. He will not be overawed by Job's social position. In the New Testament the word is used in the case of Peter--Simon whose surname is Peter (Acts 10:5, 32; 11:13); of Mark--John whose surname was Mark (Acts 12:12, 25; 15:37); of Judas--surnamed Iscariot (Luke 22:3); of Barsabbas--who was surnamed Justus (Acts 1:23); and of Judas--surnamed Barsabbas (Acts 15:22). It was a widespread custom in the ancient world to give honorary and symbolical titles. our Lord surnamed Simon Peter (Mark 3:16), and James and John Boanerges (Mark 3:17). Acts 15:37 the King James Version has "surname" for the simple "call" (so the Revised Version (British and American)).

T. Lewis

Susa

Susa - su'-sa, soo'-sa (Additions to Esther 11:3).

See SHUSHAN.

Susanchites

Susanchites - su-san'-kits (shushanekhaye').

See SHUSHANCHITES.

Susanna, the History of

Susanna, the History of - su-zan'-a:

1. Name

2. Canonicity and Position

3. Contents

4. Fact or Fiction?

5. Date

6. Original Language

1. Name: This novelette has, in the Septuagint, the bare title "Susanna" (Sousanna, from Hebrew shoshannah, "lily"). So also in the Syro-Hexapla. In Codex Alexandrinus (Theodotion) it is designated Horasis a (Vision I); see BEL AND THE DRAGON, sec. I. In the Harklensian Syriac (Ball's W2) its title is "The Book of Little (or the child?) Daniel."

2. Canonicity and Position: Susanna was with the other Additions included in the Bible Canon of the Greek, Syrian and Latin churches. Julius Africanus (circa 230 AD) was the first to dispute the right of Susanna to a place in the Canon, owing to its improbable character. Origen replied to him, strongly maintaining its historicity (see Schurer,GJV 4,III , 455;HJP ,II , 3, p. 186, where the references are given). In the Septuagint, Syro-Hexapla and Vulgate, Susanna is Daniel 14, but in Theodotion (ABQ) it opens Daniel, preceding chapter 1, a position implied in the King James Version and the Revised Version (British and American) which are based on Theodotion, formerly believed to be the true Septuagint. Yet it is probable that even in Theodotion the original place agreed with that in the true Septuagint (Swete's 87); so Roth (Kautzsch, Die Apok., 172) and Driver (Commentary on Daniel, Cambridge Bible, xviii).

See BEL AND THE DRAGON.

3. Contents: The story of Susanna is thus told in Theodotion's version, and therefore in English Versions of the Bible which follows it. Susanna was the beautiful and devout wife of Joakim who resided in Babylon in the early years of the exile, and owned a fine park which was open to his fellow-exiles (verses 1-4). Two of these last were elders and judges who, though held in high esteem, suffered impure thoughts toward Susanna to enter their minds. One day, meeting in the park, they divulged to each other their lustful passion toward this beautiful woman, and resolved together to seize the first opportunity to waylay her in the park and to overpower her (verses 5-15). A joint attempt was made upon Susanna, who resisted, notwithstanding threats of false accusation (verses 22-26). The elders make a false charge, both in private and in public, and she is accordingly condemned to death (verses 27-41). On the way to execution she is met by Daniel (= judge "of God") who has the case reopened, and by a system of cross-examination of the two elders succeeds in convincing the people that Susanna is innocent of the charge brought against her. She is acquitted, but her accusers are put to death.

The story told in the Septuagint (87) is essentially the same, though varying somewhat in details. Versions 1-4 seem to have been prefixed for clearness by Theodotion, for in Susanna verse 7 of the Septuagint Susanna is introduced for the first time: "These seeing a woman of beautiful appearance called Susanna, the wife of one of the Israelites," etc. The original text began therefore with verse 5, though in a slightly different form. Septuagint omits verses 15-18 which tell of the two elders concealing themselves and watching as Susanna entered the park and took her bath. There is not a word in Septuagint concerning the threats of the elders to defame Susanna in the event of her refusing what they desired (verses 20 ff); this omission makes the Septuagint form of the story obscure, suggesting that this section has fallen out by error. Nor does the Septuagint mention the crying out of Susanna and the elders (verse 24). The trial took place in the house, according to Theodotion (and English Versions of the Bible) (verse 28), but, according to Septuagint, in the synagogue (verse 28). In Septuagint (verse 30) it is said that the number of Susanna's relatives, servants and servant-maids present at the trial was 500; Theodotion is silent on this. Septuagint (verse 35) makes Susanna pray to God before her condemnation, but Theodotion (English Versions of the Bible, verses 42-44) after. According to Septuagint the young man whom the elders falsely said they found with Susanna escaped unobserved because masked; Theodotion says he got away because the elders had not strength to hold him (verse 39). Septuagint is silent about the two maids who, according to Theodotion (verse 36), accompanied Susanna to the bath. Theodotion does not speak of the angel who according to Septuagint imparted to Daniel the wisdom he displayed (but compare Theodotion, verse 50); but on the other hand he adds the words ascribed to Daniel (verse 51, English Versions), though he leaves out the words imputed to him by Septuagint (= even elders may lie). Septuagint omits the words of the people addressed to Daniel: "What mean these words which thou hast spoken?" (verse 47, Theodotion, English Versions of the Bible). According to Theodotion (verse 50) the people entreated Daniel to act as judge among them; Septuagint omits this statement. Two questions were put to the elders, according to the Septuagint: "Under what kind of tree?" "In what part of the park?" but only one, according to Theodotion (and English Versions of the Bible): "Under what kind of tree?" Septuagint has it that as a punishment the two elders were hurled down the precipice; according to Theodotion they were slain (verse 62). In the last two verses (verses 63 f) Septuagint points the moral of the story, but Theodotion closes by describing the joy of Susanna's relatives at the happy issue of the trial and the increased respect in which Daniel came to be held. For the dependence of the version see TEXT AND MANUSCRIPTS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT; TEXT OF THE OLD TESTAMENT; VERSIONS.

4. Fact or Fiction?: It is quite evident that the story is a fabrication and that it came to be attached to Daniel on account of the part played in it by Daniel the judge. (1) The form of the story differs in Septuagint, Theodotion and the various Syriac recensions, showing that it was a floating legend, told in manifold ways. (2) No confirmation of what is here narrated has been discovered in written or epigraphic sources. (3) The grounds on which Susanna was condemned are trivial and wholly inadequate. (4) The conduct of the judge, Daniel, is unnatural and arbitrary.

Though, however, the story is fictitious, it rests in part or wholly on older sources. (1) Ewald (Geschichte(3), IV, 386) believed that it was suggested by the Babylonian legend in which two old men are seduced by the goddess of love (compare Koran 2 96). (2) Brull (Das apokryphische Sus-Buch, 1877), followed by Ball (Speaker's Apocrypha, II, 323-31), Marshall and R. H. Charles, came to the following conclusions: (a) That the first half of the story rests on a tradition regarding two elders (Ahab and Zedekiah) who seduced certain women by persuading them that they would thus become the mother of the Messiah. This tradition has its origin probably in Jeremiah 29:21-23, where it is said that Yahweh would sorely punish Ahab and Zedekiah because they had "committed villany in Israel," having "committed adultery with their neighbours' wives" (the King James Version). We can trace the above story amid many variations in the writings of Origen and Jerome and in sundry rabbinical works. (b) The trial scene is believed to have a wholly different origin. It is said to have arisen about 100-96 BC, when Simon ben Shetach was president of the Sanhedrin. His son was falsely accused of a capital offense and was condemned to death. On the way to execution the accusers admitted that he was innocent of the crime; yet at his own request the son is executed in order that the father's hands might be strengthened in the inauguration of new reforms in the administration of justice. The Pharisees and Sadducees differed as to the punishment to be meted out to false witnesses where the death sentence was involved. The first party advocated a stricter examination of witnesses, and a severer penalty if their testimony could be proved false. The Sadducee party took up a more moderate position on both points. Susanna has been held to be a kind of tract setting forth by example the views of the Pharisee party. If this opinion of the origin of Susanna be accepted, this tract was written by a Palestinian Jew, a position rendered probable by other considerations.

5. Date: If, as the Greek, Latin and Syriac churches held and hold, Susanna forms an integral part of Daniel, the date of this last book (see DANIEL) is the date of Sus. But there is conclusive evidence that the three "Additions" circulated independently, though we have no means of fixing the date with any certainty. Perhaps this piece arose during the struggles between the Pharisees and Sadducees about 94-89 BC; see preceding section. In that case 90 BC would be a suitable date. On the date of Theodotion's translation see DANIEL; BEL AND THE DRAGON; VERSIONS; TEXT AND MANUSCRIPTS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT; TEXT OF THE OLD TESTAMENT.

6. Original Language: Our materials for judging of the language in which the author wrote are slender, and no great probability can at present be reached. The following scholars argue for a Greek original: Fritzsche, De Wette, Keil, Herzfeld, Graf, Holtzmann. The following are some of the grounds: (1) There are several paronomasias or word-plays, as in Susanna verses 54 f, schinon ("under a mastick tree") .... schisei ("will cut"); verses 58 f, prinon ("under a holm tree") .... prisai ("to cut"). But this last word (prisai) is absent from the true Septuagint, though it occurs in Theodotion (Swete's text, verse 59, has kataprise from the same root). If the word-play in verses 58 f is due to a translation based on Septuagint, the first example (verses 54 f), found in Septuagint and Theodotion, is as likely to be the work of the translator of those verses from the Hebrew. (2) It is said that no trace of a Hebrew original has been discovered; but up to a few years ago the same statement could have been made of Sir.

There is a growing opinion that the author wrote in Hebrew (or Aramaic?); so Ball, J. T. Marshall, R. H. Charles. (1) The writer was almost certainly a Palestinian Jew, and he would be far more likely to write in his own language, especially as he seems to have belonged to the Pharisaic party, who were ardent nationalists (see preceding section, at end). (2) There is a goodly number of Hebraisms, rather more than one would expect had the writer composed in Hellenistic Greek

For versions and literature see BEL AND THE DRAGON; DANIEL; the Oxford Apocrypha, edition by R. H. Charles, 638 ff.

T. Witton Davies

Susi

Susi - su'-si, soo'-si (cuci): Father of Gaddi, one of the spies, who represented the tribe of Manasseh (Numbers 13:11 ). See Gray,HPN , 92.

Swaddle; Swaddling-band

Swaddle; Swaddling-band - swod'-'-l, swod'-ling-band (verb chathal, "enwrap," "swaddle" (Ezekiel 16:4), noun chathullah, "swaddling-band" (Job 38:9); verb sparganoo, "to wrap in swaddling clothes" (Luke 2:7, 12), noun spargana (pl.), "swaddling clothes" (Wisdom of Solomon 7:4). the King James Version also has "swaddle" (Lamentations 2:22) for Taphach, literally, "to extend." But the word means "to carry on the outstretched palms of the hands" (compare Tippuchim, "dandled in the hands," Lamentations 2:20), whence RV's "to dandle"): "To swaddle" and "to swathe" are really the same word, both forms going back to an AS form swethel, "a bandage," but "swaddle" has become the technical term for the wrapping of an infant in the Orient or elsewhere. The oriental swaddling-clothes consist of a square of cloth and two or more bandages. The child is laid on the cloth diagonally and the corners are folded over the feet and body and under the head, the bandages then being tied so as to hold the cloth in position. This device forms the clothing of the child until it is about a year old, and its omission (Ezekiel 16:4) would be a token that the child had been abandoned. The mention of darkness as a "swaddling-band" at the birth of the sea (Job 38:9) is only a poetic way of saying that the sea, at its creation, was covered with clouds and darkness, and to find any idea of restraint involved is fanciful.

Burton Scott Easton

Swallow

Swallow - swal'-o (deror; strouthos, in Proverbs and Psalms, chelidon, in Isa; Latin Hirundo rustica): A small long-winged bird of exhaustless flight, belonging to the family Hirundinidae. Deror means the bird of freedom, and as the swallow is of tireless wing, it has been settled upon as fitting the requirements of the text. In the passages where `aghur is translated "swallow," there is a mistake, that word referring to the crane. There is also a word, cuc or cic, that means a rushing sound, that is incorrectly translated "swallow," when it should be "swift" (Cypselus apus).

These birds are near relatives and so alike on the wing as to be indistinguishable to any save a close observer. Yet the Hebrews knew and made a difference. The swallow is a trifle larger and different in color. It remains all the year, while in numerous instances the swift migrates and is a regular sign of returning spring. The swallow is of long and tireless flight. The swift is so much faster that the sound of its wings can be heard when passing. The swallow plasters a mud nest under eaves, on towers, belfries, and close to human habitations. The swifts are less intimate, building in deserted places, under bridges and on rocky crevices. The swallows utter constantly a rather sweet low note; the swifts chatter harshly and incessantly at their nests. These differences are observable to the most careless people. Scientists separate the birds on account of anatomical structure also. Despite this, the birds are confused in most of our translations.

"Like a swallow or a crane, so did I chatter;

I did moan as a dove; mine eyes fail with looking upward:

O Lord, I am oppressed, be thou my surety"

(Isaiah 38:14).

Here `aghur is translated "swallow" and cuc "crane," which is clearly interchanging words, as the Arabic for "swift" is cuc, the same as the Hebrew. The line should read, "swift and crane." And another reason for changing swallow to swift, in this passage, lies in the fact that of the two birds the swift is the incessant and raucous chatterer, and this was the idea in the mind of Hezekiah when he sang his Trouble Song. Another incorrect reference is found in Jeremiah 8:7: "Yea, the stork in the heavens knoweth her appointed times; and the turtle-dove and the swallow and the crane observe the time of their coming; but my people know not the law of Yahweh." Few swallows migrate. Returning swifts are one of the first signs of spring.

"As the sparrow in her wandering, as the swallow in her flying,

So the curse that is causeless alighteth not" (Proverbs 26:2).

This reference might apply to either, remembering always that the swift took its name from its exceptional flight, it being able to cover over 80 miles an hour. However, the swallow is credited with 800 miles in a night.

"Yea, the sparrow hath found her a house,

And the swallow a nest for herself, where she may lay her young,

Even thine altars, O Yahweh of hosts,

My King, and my God" (Psalms 84:3).

Here is one instance, at least, where the swallow is at home and the translation correct. The swift might possibly have built in the temple: the swallow was sure to be there.

Gene Stratton-Porter

Swan

Swan - swon (tinshemeth, "chameleon," "tree-toad," "water-hen," "owl"; kuknos; Latin cygnus; Anglo-Saxon: swan and swon): Mentioned only in old versions and the Revised Version margin in Leviticus 11:18: "the swan, and the pelican, and the gier eagle," and in Deuteronomy 14:16 Septuagint porphurion = "water-hen"; Vulgate (Jerome's Latin Bible, 390-405 A.D.) ibis). In the Revised Version (British and American) this is rightly changed to "the horned owl, and the pelican, and the vulture." A bird of the duck family wrongly placed among the abominations in old versions of the Bible, now changed to horned owl.

White and gray swans spend their winter migratory season on the waters of the Holy Land. They are among the most ancient birds of history; always have been used for food; when young and tender, of fine flesh and delicious flavor; so there is no possibility that they were ever rightfully placed among the birds unsuitable for food. Their feeding habits are aquatic, their food in no way objectionable.

Gene Stratton-Porter

Swearing

Swearing - swar'-ing.

See OATH; PERJURY;CRIMES ; PUNISHMENTS.

Sweat

Sweat - swet (ze`ah (Genesis 3:19), yeza` (Ezekiel 44:18); hidros (2 Maccabees 2:26; Luke 22:44)): "In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread" (Genesis 3:19). Somewhat difficult is the passage, which the Revised Version (British and American) renders: "But the priests the Levites, the sons of Zadok .... shall have linen tires upon their heads, and shall have linen breeches upon their loins; they shall not gird themselves with anything that causeth sweat," literally, "they shall not gird themselves with sweat" (Ezekiel 44:15, 18). The idea is evidently that profuse perspiration would make their ministrations unpleasant. The rule was of special importance in the sultry climate of Palestine.

Luke, the physician, describing the agony of the Lord in Gethsemane, says: "His sweat became as it were great drops (thromboi) of blood falling down upon the ground" (Luke 22:44, the Revised Version (British and American), following Codex Sinaiticus (a), Codex Alexandrinus, Codex Vaticanus etc., notes in margin: "Many ancient authorities omit Luke 22:43-44"). There are two difficulties of interpretation in this passage, apart from the difficulty which the physiological explanation of the phenomenon presents: (1) the word (thrombos) translated "drop" means literally, "a clot of blood," "a lump," "a curd," and is nowhere else used in the sense of drop. (2) It has been generally accepted that the sweat of the brow of Jesus had become bloody in appearance and in character, a symptom called in ancient medicine haimatodes hidros, "bloody sweat." It must, however, be observed that this translation would make the Greek particle hosei, superfluous, by which, not the identity of the sweat with drops of blood, but a certain similarity or comparison must be intended. Ch. Th. Kuinoel, in his Latin commentary on the historical books of the New Testament (Leipzig, 1809, II, 654), has given all known parallel instances in history and legend, which seem to prove that under certain psychological or physiological conditions, though rarely, haimatodes hidros has occurred.

Olshausen in his Commentary, II, 469, thinks that the following points of comparison might have been in the mind of Luke: (1) the sweat may have appeared on the forehead of Jesus in heavy drops; (2) these may have dropped visibly to the ground, just as drops of blood fall from a wound; (3) in addition, possibly a reddish color may have been noticeable, owing to an exudation of the arteries, though the latter is not directly expressed in the words of the evangelist. See also Dr. Stroud, On the Physical Cause of the Death of Christ, 183; Bynaeus, De morte Christi, II, 33.

The people of Palestine in Greek-Roman times were generally provided with handkerchiefs, used especially to wipe off the perspiration. The fashion was derived from Rome, whence the name of these napkins became soudarion, Latin sudarium. The late legend of Berenice or Veronica, who presented her handkerchief to the Saviour on His way to be crucified, and who found, when it had been returned to her by the Lord, that His features had been imprinted upon the cloth, is a reminiscence of this use. These handkerchiefs were frequently used to tie up small bundles of certain possessions, money, etc. (Luke 19:20). As a rule the dead had their faces covered with one, or had it tied around the head (John 11:44; 20:7). In Ephesus the handkerchiefs of Paul were carried to the sick, and achieved miraculous cures (Acts 19:12).

The verb hidroo, "to sweat," is found in a rather difficult passage of the Didache (i.6), which is introduced as a quotation, the source of which, however, we do not know: "Let thy alms sweat into (in ?) thy hands, until thou knowest to whom thou givest." The context seems to show that we have here a free repetition of the arguments of Sirach 12:1 ff. so that the meaning would be: "In giving charity, do not give indiscriminately or thoughtlessly, but consider carefully so that no one who is unworthy receive your benefaction." Still it is not impossible that the text is corrupt in the passage.

H. L. E. Luering

Sweet Cane

Sweet Cane - swet kan.

See REED.

Sweet Incense

Sweet Incense - See SPICES .

Swell

Swell - swel (tsabhah): In the ordeal of the Water of Jealousy described in Numbers 5:11-31 (P), the effect on the unfaithful wife ot the drinking of the holy water was to cause the thigh to fall away (Revised Version) or rot (the King James Version) and the abdomen to "swell." This ceremonial was a direct appeal to the judgment of God, for there was nothing in the holy water (taken from the laver) or the dust of the temple which was mixed with it to produce this effect. In the Talmudic tract Cotah there are given many rabbinical opinions and particulars as to the procedure in later times. Apparently from the passage in Numbers, the judgment speedily followed the appeal, but according to Sotah, iii.4, it might be postponed even for four years, and in v.1, it is said to have produced the same effect on the adulterer as on the unfaithful wife. We have no details as to the nature or permanency of the swelling.

"Swell" as the translation of another word, batseq, is used in the sense of blistering of the feet from long tramping. Both in Deuteronomy 8:4 and Nehemiah 9:21 it is said that in spite of their long wilderness marches the feet of the Israelites did not swell. This was a token of divine protection.

See SWOLLEN.

Alexander Macalister

Swelling

Swelling - swel'-ing: The verb ga'-ah, means "rise up" (Ezekiel 47:5, etc.), so that the noun ga'awah (Psalms 46:3) means "arising." The "swelling" of the sea that shakes the mountains is a perfectly good translation, and "pride" (so the American Revised Version margin) is beside the mark. In Jeremiah 12:5; 49:19 parallel Jeremiah 50:44; Zechariah 11:3 is found the phrase ge'on ha-yarden, "exaltation of the Jordan," which the King James Version translates "pride of Jordan" in Zechariah and "swelling of Jordan" in Jeremiah (the Revised Version (British and American) has "pride" throughout, with "swelling" in the margin of Jeremiah). What is described is a place, with a mass of vegetation, easily burned (Zechariah 11:1-3), a lair of lions (Jeremiah 49:19; Zechariah 11:3), and a particularly dangerous place for human beings (Jeremiah 12:5). The luxuriant thicket of the Jordan bank is evidently meant, which could well be spoken of as "Jordan's pride" (OHL, "majesty of the Jordan"), and "swelling" is quite impossible.

In the New Testament "swelling" is used in 2 Corinthians 12:20 for phusiosis, "puffing up," "blatant self-conceit," and 2 Peter 2:18 parallel Jude verse 16 for huperogkos, "overgrown," "solemnly inane."

Burton Scott Easton

Swift

Swift - See SWALLOW.

Swift Beasts

Swift Beasts - (kirkaroth (Isaiah 66:20)): the King James Version and the English Revised Version "swift beasts," the English Revised Version margin and the American Standard Revised Version "dromedaries." In Micah 1:13 (rekhesh) a horse is meant, the Revised Version (British and American) "swift steed."

See CAMEL; HORSE.

Swine

Swine - swin (chazir; compare Arabic khinzir; hus, Septuagint and New Testament; compare Greek sus, and Latin sus; adjective hueios, as a substantive, the Septuagint; choiros, Septuagint and New Testament): In both ancient and modern times domestic swine have been little kept in Palestine, but wild swine are well known as inhabitants of the thickets of the Chuleh, the Jordan valley, the Dead Sea, and some of the mountains. The species is Susanna scrofa, the wild pig of Europe, North Africa and Western Asia.

In the Old Testament the swine is mentioned in Leviticus 11:7 and Deuteronomy 14:8 as an unclean animal: "And the swine, because he parteth the hoof, and is clovenfooted, but cheweth not the cud, he is unclean unto you." In Isaiah 65:4 and 66:3,17 the eating of swine's flesh and the offering of oblations of swine's blood are referred to as abominations. Septuagint also refers to swine in three passages where these animals are not mentioned in the Hebrew and EV. In 2 Samuel 17:8 where English Versions of the Bible has "as a bear robbed of her whelps in the field," Septuagint adds (translation) "and as a savage boar in the plain." In 1 Kings 21:19 Septuagint 20:19), where English Versions of the Bible has "in the place where dogs licked the blood of Naboth," Septuagint has "where the swine and the dogs licked"; similarly in 1 Kings 22:38. In 1 Maccabees 1:47 there is reference to a decree of Antiochus ordering the sacrifice of swine. In 2 Maccabees 6 and 7 there are accounts of the torture and death of Eleazar, an aged scribe, and of a mother and her seven sons for refusing to taste swine's flesh. Swine, the property of Gentiles, are mentioned in the account of the Gadarene demoniac (Matthew 8:30-31, 32; Mark 5:11-12, 13-14, 16; Luke 8:32-33), and in the parable of the Prodigal Son (Luke 15:15-16).

Figurative: We find the following figurative references to swine:

"The boar out of the wood doth ravage it,

And the wild beasts of the field feed on it" (i.e. on the "vine out of Egypt") (Psalms 80:13);

"As a ring of gold in a swine's snout,

So is a fair woman that is without discretion"

(Proverbs 11:22);

"The Carmonians (the King James Version Carmanians, perhaps of Kirman or Carmania, in Southwestern Persia) raging in wrath shall go forth as the wild boars of the wood"

(2 Esdras 15:30);

"The dog turning to his own vomit again, and the sow that had washed to wallowing in the mire"

(2 Peter 2:22; compare Proverbs 26:11).

Alfred Ely Day

Swollen

Swollen - swol'-'-n (pimprasthai, only in Acts 28:6): The Melitans expected to see Paul poisoned by the viper's bite. the Revised Version (British and American) and the King James Version translate it "swollen," but the word is used by certain medical writers in the sense of inflammation; see Nicander, Theriaca, 306; Hesiod, Theogonia, 856, expressing thereby the burning up by a thunderbolt. Swelling accompanies the local lesion of snake-bite and often large purpuric exudation of blood, as well as paralysis, especially of the lower limbs.

Sword

Sword - sord.

See ARMOR,III , 5.

Sycamine, Tree

Sycamine, Tree - sik'-a-min, (sukaminos (Luke 17:6)): This is generally accepted as the black mulberry tree (Morus nigra; Natural Order, Urlicaceae), known in Arabic as tut shrami, "the Damascus mulberry," a fine tree which grows to the height of 30 ft. It produces the dark blood-red mulberry juice referred to in 1 Maccabees 6:34 (moron), "the blood of .... mulberries," which was shown to the elephants of the Syrians. The white mulberry, M. alba, has white and less juicy fruit, and it is cultivated largely for the sake of its leaves with which the silkworms of the Lebanon are fed.

E. W. G. Masterman

Sycamore

Sycamore - sik'-a-mor.

See SYCOMORE.