1. Names of the Sea: This is the name given to the Mediterranean, which formed the western boundary of Palestine (Numbers 34:6 f; Joshua 15:12, 47; Ezekiel 47:19 f; Ezekiel 48:28). It is also called "the hinder sea" (Hebrew ha-yam ha-'aharon), i.e. the western sea (Deuteronomy 11:24; 34:2;, Joel 2:20; Zechariah 14:8), and "the sea of the Philis" (Exodus 23:31), which, of course, applies especially to the part washing the shore of Philistia, from Jaffa southward. Generally, when the word "sea" is used, and no other is definitely indicated, the Mediterranean is intended (Genesis 49:13; Numbers 13:29, etc.). It was the largest sheet of water with which the Hebrews had any acquaintance. Its gleaming mirror, stretching away to the sunset, could be seen from many an inland height.

2. Israel and the Sea: It bulked large in the minds of the landsmen--for Israel produced few mariners--impressing itself upon their speech, so that "seaward" was the common term for "westward" (Exodus 26:22; Joshua 5:1, etc.). Its mystery and wonder, the raging of the storm, and the sound of "sorrow on the sea," borne to their upland ears, infected them with a strange dread of its wide waters, to which the seer of Patmos gave the last Scriptural expression in his vision of the new earth, where "the sea is no more" (Revelation 21:1).

3. The Coast Line: Along the coast lay the tribal territories assigned to Asher, Zebulun, Manasseh, Dan and Judah. Many of the cities along the shore they failed to possess, however, and much of the land. The coast line offered little facility for the making of harbors. The one seaport of which in ancient times the Hebrews seem to have made much use was Joppa--the modern Jaffa (2 Chronicles 2:16, etc.). From this place, probably, argosies of Solomon turned their prows westward. Here, at least, "ships of Tarshish" were wont to set out upon their adventurous voyages (Jonah 1:3). The ships on this sea figure in the beautiful vision of Isaiah (60:8 f).

See ACCO; JOPPA.

4. The Sea in the New Testament: The boy Jesus, from the heights above Nazareth, must often have looked on the waters of the great sea, as they broke in foam on the curving shore, from the roots of Carmel to the point at Acre. Once only in His journeyings, so far as we know, did He approach the sea, namely on His ever-memorable visit to the "borders of Tyre and Sidon" (Matthew 15:21; Mark 7:24). The sea, in all its moods, was well known to the great apostle of the Gentiles. The three shipwrecks, which he suffered (2 Corinthians 11:25), were doubtless due to the power of its angry billows over the frail craft of those old days.

See PAUL.

5. Debt of Palestine to the Sea: The land owes much to the great sea. During the hot months of summer, a soft breeze from the water springs up at dawn, fanning all the seaward face of the Central Range. At sunset the chilled air slips down the slopes and the higher strata drift toward the uplands, charged with priceless moisture, giving rise to the refreshing dews which make the Palestinian morning so sweet.

See, further, MEDITERRANEAN SEA.

W. Ewing

Sea, the Molten; Sea, the Brazen

Sea, the Molten; Sea, the Brazen - mol'-t'n, or (yam mutsaq, yam hanechosheth): This was a large brazen (bronze) reservoir for water which stood in the court of Solomon's Temple between the altar and the temple porch, toward the South (1 Kings 7:23-26; 2 Chronicles 4:2-5, 10). The bronze from which it was made is stated in 1 Chronicles 18:8 to have been taken by David from the cities Tibhath and Cun. It replaced the laver of the tabernacle, and, like that, was used for storing the water in which the priests washed their hands and their feet (compare Exodus 30:18; 38:8). It rested on 12 brazen (bronze) oxen, facing in four groups the four quarters of heaven. For particulars of shape, size and ornamentation, see TEMPLE. The "sea" served its purpose till the time of Ahaz, who took away the brazen oxen, and placed, the sea upon a pavement (2 Kings 16:17). It is recorded that the oxen were afterward taken to Babylon (Jeremiah 52:20). The sea itself shared the same fate, being first broken to pieces (2 Kings 25:13, 16).

W. Shaw Caldecott

Sea, Western

Sea, Western - wes'-tern.

See MEDITERRANEAN SEA.

Seah

Seah - se'-a (ce'ah): A dry measure equal to about one and one-half pecks.

See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

Seal

Seal - sel (substantive chotham, "seal," "signet," Tabba`ath, "signet-ring"; Aramaic `izqa'; sphragis; verb chatham, (Aramaic chatham); (sphragizo), (katasphragizomai, "to seal"):

I. Literal Sense. A seal is an instrument of stone, metal or other hard substance (sometimes set in a ring), on which is engraved some device or figure, and is used for making an impression on some soft substance, as clay or wax, affixed to a document or other object, in token of authenticity.

1. Prevalence in Antiquity: The use of seals goes back to a very remote antiquity, especially in Egypt, Babylonia and Assyria. Herodotus (i.195) records the Babylonian custom of wearing signets. In Babylonia the seal generally took the form of a cylinder cut in crystal or some hard stone, which was bored through from end to end and a cord passed through it. The design, often accompanied by the owner's name, was engraved on the curved part. The signet was then suspended by the cord round the neck or waist (compare the Revised Version (British and American) "cord" in Genesis 38:18; "upon thy heart .... upon thine arm," i.e. one seal hanging down from the neck and another round the waist; Song of Solomon 8:6). In Egypt, too, as in Babylonia, the cylinder was the earliest form used for the purpose of a seal; but this form was in Egypt gradually superseded by the scarab (= beetle-shaped) as the prevailing type. Other forms, such as the cone-shaped, were also in use. From the earliest period of civilization the finger-ring on which some distinguishing badge was engraved was in use as a convenient way of carrying the signet, the earliest extant rings being those found in Egyptian tombs. Other ancient peoples, such as the Phoenicians, also used seals. From the East the custom passed into Greece and other western countries. Devices of a variety of sorts were in use at Rome, both by the emperors and by private individuals. In ancient times, almost every variety of precious stones was used for seals, as well as cheaper material, such as limestone or terra-cotta. In the West wax came early into use as the material for receiving the impression of the seal, but in the ancient East clay was the medium used (compare Job 38:14). Pigment and ink also came into use.

2. Seals among the Hebrews: That the Israelites were acquainted with the use in Egypt of signets set in rings is seen in the statement that Pharaoh delivered to Joseph his royal signet as a token of deputed authority (Genesis 41:41 f). They were also acquainted with the use of seals among the Persians and Medes (Esther 3:12; Esther 8:8-10; Daniel 6:17). The Hebrews themselves used them at an early period, the first recorded instance being Genesis 38:18, 25, where the patriarch Judah is said to have pledged his word to Tamar by leaving her his signet, cord and staff. We have evidence of engraved signets being in important use among them in early times in the description of the two stones on the high priest's ephod (Exodus 28:11; 39:6), of his golden plate (Exodus 28:36; 39:30), and breastplate (Exodus 39:14). Ben-Sirach mentions as a distinct occupation the work of engraving on signets (Sirach 38:27). From the case of Judah and the common usage in other countries, we may infer that every Hebrew of any standing wore a seal. In the case of the signet ring, it was usual to wear it on one of the fingers of the right hand (Jeremiah 22:24). The Hebrews do not seem to have developed an original type of signets. The seals so far discovered in Palestine go to prove that the predominating type was the Egyptian, and to a less degree the Babylonian.

3. Uses of Sealing: (1) One of the most important uses of sealing in antiquity was to give a proof of authenticity and authority to letters, royal commands, etc. It served the purposes of a modern signature at a time when the art of writing was known to only a few. Thus Jezebel "wrote letters in Ahab's name, and sealed them with his seal" (1 Kings 21:8); the written commands of Ahasuerus were "sealed with the king's ring," "for the writing which is written in the king's name, and sealed with the king's ring, may no man reverse" (Esther 8:8, 10; 3:12). (2) Allied to this is the formal ratification of a transaction or covenant. Jeremiah sealed the deeds of the field which he bought from Hanamel (Jeremiah 32:10-14; compare Jeremiah 32:44); Nehemiah and many others affixed their seal to the written covenant between God and His people (Nehemiah 9:38 10:1 ff). (3) An additional use was the preservation of books in security. A roll or other document intended for preservation was sealed up before it was deposited in a place of safety (Jeremiah 32:14; compare the "book .... close sealed with seven seals," Revelation 5:1). In sealing the roll, it was wrapped round with flaxen thread or string, then a lump of clay was attached to it impressed with a seal. The seal would have to be broken by an authorized person before the book could be read (Revelation 5:2, 5, 9; 1, 3, etc.). (4) Sealing was a badge of deputed authority and power, as when a king handed over his signet ring to one of his officers (Genesis 41:42; Esther 3:10; 8:2; 1 Maccabees 6:15). (5) Closed doors were often sealed to prevent the entrance of any unauthorized person. So the door of the lion's den (Daniel 6:17; compare Bel and the Dragon verse 14). Herodotus mentions the custom of sealing tombs (ii.121). So we read of the chief priests and Pharisees sealing the stone at the mouth of our Lord's tomb in order to "make the sepulchre sure" against the intrusion of the disciples (Matthew 27:66). Compare the sealing of the abyss to prevent Satan's escape Revelation 20:3). A door was sealed by stretching a cord over the stone which blocked the entrance, spreading clay or wax on the cord, and then impressing it with a seal. (6) To any other object might a seal be affixed, as an official mark of ownership; e.g. a large number of clay stoppers of wine jars are still preserved, on which seal impressions of the cylinder type were stamped, by rolling the cylinder along the surface of the clay when it was still soft (compare Job 38:14).

II. Metaphorical Use of the Term. The word "seal," both substantive and verb, is often used figuratively for the act or token of authentication, confirmation, proof, security or possession. Sin is said not to be forgotten by God, but treasured and stored up with Him against the sinner, under a seal (Deuteronomy 32:34; Job 14:17). A lover's signet is the emblem of love as an inalienable possession (Song of Solomon 8:6); an unresponsive maiden is "a spring shut up, a fountain sealed" (Song of Solomon 4:12). The seal is sometimes a metaphor for secrecy. That which is beyond the comprehension of the uninitiated is said to be as "a book that is sealed" (Isaiah 29:11 f; compare the book with seven seals, Revelation 5:1 ff). Daniel is bidden to "shut up the words" of his prophecy "and seal the book, even to the time of the end," i.e. to keep his prophecy a secret till it shall be revealed (Daniel 12:4, 9; compare Revelation 10:4). Elsewhere it stands for the ratification of prophecy (Daniel 9:24). The exact meaning of the figure is sometimes ambiguous (as in Job 33:16; Ezekiel 28:12). In the New Testament the main ideas in the figure are those of authentication, ratification, and security. The believer in Christ is said to "set his seal to this, that God is true" (John 3:33), i.e. to attest the veracity of God, to stamp it with the believer's own endorsement and confirmation. The Father has sealed the Son, i.e. authenticated Him as the bestower of life-giving bread (John 6:27). The circumcision of Abraham was a "sign" and "seal," an outward ratification, of the righteousness of faith which he had already received while uncircumcised (Romans 4:11; compare the prayer offered at the circumcision of a child, "Blessed be He who sanctified His beloved from the womb, and put His ordinance upon his flesh, and sealed His offering with the sign of a holy covenant"; also Targum Song *38: "The seal of circumcision is in your flesh as it was sealed in the flesh of Abraham"). Paul describes his act in making over to the saints at Jerusalem the contribution of the Gentiles as having "sealed to them this fruit" (Romans 15:28); the meaning of the phrase is doubtful, but the figure seems to be based on sealing as ratifying a commercial transaction, expressing Paul's intention formally to hand over to them the fruit (of his own labors, or of spiritual blessings which through him the Gentiles had enjoyed), and to mark it as their own property. Paul's converts are the "seal," the authentic confirmation, of his apostleship (1 Corinthians 9:2). God by His Spirit indicates who are His, as the owner sets his seal on his property; and just as documents are sealed up until the proper time for opening them, so Christians are sealed up by the Holy Spirit "unto the day of redemption" (Ephesians 1:13; 4:30; 2 Corinthians 1:22). Ownership, security and authentication are implied in the words, "The firm foundation of God standeth, having this seal, The Lord knoweth them that are his" (2 Timothy 2:19). The seal of God on the foreheads of His servants (Revelation 7:2-4) marks them off as His own, and guarantees their eternal security, whereas those that "have not the seal of God on their foreheads" (Revelation 9:4) have no such guaranty.

On the analogy of the rite of circumcision (see above), the term "seal" (sphragis) was at a very early period applied to Christian baptism. But there is no sufficient ground for referring such passages as Ephesians 1:13; 4:30; 2 Corinthians 1:22 to the rite of baptism (as some do). The use of the metaphor in connection with baptism came after New Testament times (early instances are given in Gebhardt and Lightfoot on 2 Clem 7:6). Harnack and Hatch maintain that the name "seal" for baptism was taken from the Greek mysteries, but Anrich and Sanday-Headlam hold that it was borrowed from the Jewish view of circumcision as a seal.

See MYSTERY.

D. Miall Edwards

Sealed, Fountain

Sealed, Fountain - seld, These words, applied to the bride (Song of Solomon 4:12), find their explanation under SEAL (which see). Anything that was to be authoritatively protected was sealed. Where water was one of the most precious things, as in the East, fountains and wells were often sealed (Genesis 29:3; Proverbs 5:15-18).

Sealskin

Sealskin - sel'-skin: The rendering of the Revised Version (British and American) (Exodus 25:5; Ezekiel 16:10) for `or tachash, the Revised Version margin "porpoise-skin," the King James Version "badgers' skin." A seal, Monachus albiventer, is found in the Mediterranean, though not in the Red Sea, but it is likely that tachash means the dugong, which is found in the Red Sea.

See BADGER; PORPOISE.

Seam; Seamless

Seam; Seamless - sem, sem'-les: The coat or inner garment (chiton) of Jesus is described in John 19:23 as "without seam" (arrhaphos), i.e. woven in one piece.

Sea-mew

Sea-mew - se'-mu (shachaph; laros; Latin, Larus canus): The sea-gull. Used by modern translators in the list of abominations in the place of the cuckoo (Leviticus 11:16; Deuteronomy 14:15). It is very probable that the sea-gull comes closer to the bird intended than the CUCKOO (which see). The sea-gull is a "slender" bird, but not "lean" as the root shachaph implies. However, with its stretch of wing and restless flight it gives this impression. Gulls are common all along the Mediterranean coast and around the Sea of Galilee. They are thought to have more intelligence than the average bird, and to share with some eagles, hawks, vultures and the raven the knowledge that if they find mollusk they cannot break they can carry it aloft and drop it on the rocks. Only a wise bird learns this. Most feathered creatures pick at an unyielding surface a few times and then seek food elsewhere. There are two reasons why these birds went on the abomination lists. To a steady diet of fish they add carrion. Then they are birds of such nervous energy, so exhaustless in flight, so daring in flying directly into the face of fierce winds, that the Moslems believed them to be tenanted with the souls of the damned. Moses was reared and educated among the Egyptians, and the laws he formulated often are tinged by traces of his early life. History fails to record any instance of a man reared in Egypt who permitted the killing of a gull, ibis, or hoopoe.

Gene Stratton-Porter

Sea-monster

Sea-monster - se'-mon-ster: Genesis 1:21 (tanninim), "sea monsters," the King James Version "whales," Septuagint (ta kete), "sea-monsters," "huge fish," or "whales." Job 7:12 (tannin), "sea-monster" the King James Version "whale," the Septuagint drakon, "dragon." Psalms 74:13 (tanninim), the American Standard Revised Version and the English Revised Version margin. "sea-monsters," the King James Version and the English Revised Version "dragons," the King James Version margin "whales" Septuagint drakontes, "dragons" Psalms 148:7 (tanninim), "sea-monsters" the King James Version and the English Revised Version "dragons," the English Revised Version margin "sea-monsters" or "water-spouts," Septuagint drakontes, "dragons." Lamentations 4:3 (tannin) "jackals," the King James Version "sea monsters" the King James Version margin "sea calves," Septuagint drakontes. Matthew 12:40 (referring to Jonah) (ketos), English Versions of the Bible "whale," the Revised Version margin "sea-monster." In the Apocrypha, the Revised Version (British and American) changes the King James Version "whale (ketos) into "sea-monster" in Sirach 43:25 but not in Song of Three Children verse 57.

See DRAGON; JACKAL; WHALE.

Alfred Ely Day

Sear

Sear - ser: In 1 Timothy 4:2 for (kausteriazo), "burn with a hot iron" (compare "cauterize"), the King James Version "having their conscience seared with a hot iron," and the Revised Version margin. "Seared" in this connection means "made insensible," like the surface of a deep burn after healing. The verb, however, probably means "brand" (so the Revised Version (British and American)). "Criminals are branded on their forehead, so that all men may know their infamy. The consciences of certain men are branded just as truly, so that there is an inward consciousness of hypocrisy." See the commentaries

Search

Search - surch: Some peculiar senses are: (1) In the books of Moses, especially in Nu, "searching out the land" means to spy out (raggel), to investigate carefully, to examine with a view to giving a full and accurate report on. (2) When applied to the Scriptures, as in Ezra 4:15, 19 (baqqer); John 5:39; 1 Peter 1:11 (eraunao), it means to examine, to study out the meaning. In Acts 17:11, the Revised Version (British and American) substitutes "examining" for the "searched" of the King James Version. See SEARCHINGS. (3) "Search out" often means to study critically, to investigate carefully, e.g. Job 8:8; 29:16; Ecclesiastes 1:13; Lamentations 3:40; Matthew 2:8; 1 Corinthians 2:10; 1 Peter 1:10. (4) When the word is applied to God's searching the heart or spirit, it means His opening up, laying bare, disclosing what was hidden, e.g. 1 Chronicles 28:9; Psalms 44:21; 139:1; Proverbs 20:27; Jeremiah 17:10; Romans 8:27.

G. H. Gerberding

Search the Scriptures

Search the Scriptures - The sentence beginning with (eraunate), in John 5:39 the King James Version has been almost universally regarded as meaning "Search the scriptures, for in them ye think ye have eternal life." But one cannot read as far as dokeite, "ye think," without feeling that there is something wrong with the ordinary version. This verb is at least a disturbing element in the current of thought (if not superfluous), and only when the first verb is taken as an indicative does the meaning of the writer become clear. The utterance is not a command, but a declaration: "Ye search the scriptures, because ye think that in them," etc. Robert Barclay as early as 1675, in his Apology for the True Christian Divinity (91 ff), refers to two scholars before him who had handed down the correct tradition: "Moreover, that place may be taken in the indicative mood, Ye search the Scriptures; which interpretation the Greek word will bear, and so Pasor translated it: which by the reproof following seemeth also to be the more genuine interpretation, as Cyrillus long ago hath observed." So Dr. Edwin A. Abbott, in his Johannine Grammar (London, 1906, section 2439 (i)). See also Transactions American Philological Association, 1901, 64 f.

J. E. Harry

Searchings

Searchings - sur'-chingz (chiqre (lebh), from chaqar, to "search," "explore," "examine thoroughly"): In the song of Deborah the Reubenites are taunted because their great resolves of heart, chiqeqe lebh, led to nothing but great "searchings" of heart, chiqre lebh, and no activity other than to remain among their flocks (Judges 5:15 f). The first of the two Hebrew expressions so emphatically contrasted (though questioned by commentators on the authority of 5 manuscripts as a corruption of the second) can with reasonable certainty be interpreted "acts prescribed by one's understanding" (compare the expressions chakham lebh, nebhon lebh, in which the heart is looked upon as the seat of the understanding). The second expression may mean either irresolution or hesitation based on selfish motives, as the heart was also considered the seat of the feelings, or answerability to God (compare Jeremiah 17:10; Proverbs 25:3); this rendering would explain the form liphelaghoth in Judges 5:16, literally, `for the water courses of Reuben, great the searchings of heart!'

Nathan Isaacs

Seasons

Seasons - se'-z'nz (summer: qayits, Chaldaic qayiT (Daniel 2:35); (theros; winter: cethaw) (Song of Solomon 2:11), (choreph; cheimon): The four seasons in Palestine are not so marked as in more northern countries, summer gradually fading into winter and winter into summer. The range of temperature is not great. In the Bible we have no reference to spring or autumn; the only seasons mentioned are "summer and winter" (Genesis 8:22; Psalms 74:17; Zechariah 14:8).

Winter is the season of rain lasting from November to May. "The winter is past; the rain is over" (Song of Solomon 2:11). See RAIN. The temperature at sealevel in Palestine reaches freezing-point occasionally, but seldom is less than 40ø F. On the hills and mountains it is colder, depending on the height. The people have no means of heating their houses, and suffer much with the cold. They wrap up their necks and heads and keep inside the houses out of the wind as much as possible. "The sluggard will not plow by reason of the winter" (Proverbs 20:4). Jesus in speaking of the destruction of Jerusalem says, "Pray ye that your flight be not in the winter" (Matthew 24:20). Paul asks Timothy to "come before winter" (2 Timothy 4:21) as navigation closed then and travel was virtually impossible.

Summer is very hot and rainless. "(When) the fig tree .... putteth forth its leaves, ye know that the summer is nigh" (Mark 13:28); "The harvest is past, the summer is ended" (Jeremiah 8:20). It is the season of harvesting and threshing (Daniel 2:35). "He that gathereth in summer is a wise son" (Proverbs 10:5).

See COLD; HEAT; ASTRONOMY, sec. I, 5.

Alfred H. Joy

Seat

Seat - set: This word is used to translate the Hebrew words (moshabh, shebheth, kicce', and tekhunah), once (Job 23:3). It translates the Greek word (kathedra) (Matthew 21:12; 23:2; Mark 11:15), and "chief seat" translates the compound word (protokathedria) (Matthew 23:6; Mark 12:39; Luke 20:46). In the King James Version it translates (thronos) (Luke 1:52; Revelation 2:13; 4:4; 11:16; 13:2; 16:10), which the Revised Version (British and American) renders "throne." It denotes a place or thing upon which one sits, as a chair, or stool (1 Samuel 20:18; Judges 3:20). It is used also of the exalted position occupied by men of marked rank or influence, either in good or evil (Matthew 23:2; Psalms 1:1).

Jesse L. Cotton

Seats, Chief

Seats, Chief - sets.

See CHIEF SEATS.

Seba

Seba - se'-ba (cebha'; Saba (Genesis 10:7; 1 Chronicles 1:9); Greek ibid., but Codex Vaticanus has (Saban):

1. Forms of Name, and Parentage of Seba: The first son of Cush, his brothers being Havilah, Sabtah, Raamah, and Sabtecha. In Psalms 72:10 and Isaiah 43:3 (where the Greek has Soene), Seba is mentioned with Egypt and Ethiopia, and must therefore have been a southern people. In Isaiah 45:14 we meet with the gentilic form, (csebha'im) (Sabaeim), rendered "Sabaeans," who are described as "men of stature" (i.e. tall), and were to come over to Cyrus in chains, and acknowledge that God was in him--their merchandise, and that of the Ethiopians, and the labor of Egypt, were to be his.

2. Position of the Nation: Their country is regarded as being, most likely, the district of Saba, North of Adulis, on the west coast of the Red Sea. There is just a possibility that the Sabi River, stretching from the coast to the Zambesi and the Limpopo, which was utilized as a waterway by the states in that region, though, through silting, not suitable now, may contain a trace of the name, and perhaps testifies to still more southern extensions of the power and influence of the Sebaim. (See Th. Bent, The Ruined Cities of Mashonaland, 1892.) The ruins of this tract are regarded as being the work of others than the black natives of the country. Dillmann, however, suggests (on Genesis 10:7) that the people of Seba were another branch of the Cushites East of Napatha by the Arabian Sea, of which Strabo (xvi. 4, 8, 10) and Ptolemy (iv.7, 7 f) give information.

See SHEBA andHDB , under the word

T. G. Pinches

Sebam

Sebam - se'-bam (sebham; Sebama; the King James Version Shebam): A town in the upland pasture land given to the tribes of Reuben and Gad. It is named along with Heshbon, Elealeh and Nebo (Numbers 32:3). It is probably the same place as Sibmah (the King James Version "Shibmah") in Numbers 32:38 (so also Joshua 13:19). In the time of Isaiah and Jeremiah it was a Moabite town, but there is no record of how or when it was taken from Israel. It appears to have been famous for the luxuriance of its vines and for its summer fruits (Isaiah 16:8 f; Jeremiah 48:32). Eusebius (in Onomasticon) calls it a city of Moab in the land of Gilead which fell to the tribe of Reuben. Jerome (Comm. in Isaiah 5:1-30) says it was about 500 paces from Heshbon, and he describes it as one of the strong places of that region. It may be represented by the modern Simia, which stands on the south side of Wady Chesban, about 2 miles from Chesban. The ancient ruins are considerable, with large sarcophagi; and in the neighboring rock wine presses are cut (PEFM, "Eastern Palestine," 221 f).

W. Ewing

Sebat

Sebat - se-bat', se'-bat (Zechariah 1:7).

See SHEBAT.

Secacah

Secacah - se-ka'-ka, sek'-a-ka (cekhakhah; Codex Vaticanus Aichioza; Codex Alexandrinus Sochocha): One of the six cities "in the wilderness of Judah" (Joshua 15:61), that is in the uncultivated lands to the West of the Dead Sea, where a scanty pasturage is still obtained by wandering Bedouin tribes. There are many signs in this district of more settled habitation in ancient times, but the name Secacah is lost. Conder proposed Khirbet edition Diqqeh] (also called Khirbet es Siqqeh), "the ruin of the path," some 2 miles South of Bethany. Though an ancient site, it is too near the inhabited area; the name, too, is uncertain (PEF, III, 111, Sh XVII).

E. W. G. Masterman

Sechenias

Sechenias - sek-e-ni'-as:

(1) (Codex Alexandrinus Sechenias; omitted in Codex Vaticanus and Swete): 1 Esdras 8:29 = "Shecaniah" in Ezra 8:3; the arrangement in Ezra is different.

(2) (Codex Alexandrinus Sechenias, but Codex Vaticanus and Swete, Eiechonias): Name of a person who went up at the head of a family in the return with Ezra (1 Esdras 8:32) = "Shecaniah" in Ezra 8:5.

Sechu

Sechu - se'-ku (sekhu).

See SECU.

Second Coming

Second Coming - sek'-und kum'-ing.

See PAROUSIA; ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, V.

Second Death

Second Death - See DEATH; ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, sec. X, (6).

Second Sabbath

Second Sabbath - See SABBATH,SECOND AFTER THE FIRST .

Secondarily

Secondarily - sek'-un-da-ri-li: the King James Version for (deuteron) (1 Corinthians 12:28). Probably without distinction from "secondly" (so the Revised Version (British and American), and so the King James Version also for deuteron in Sirach 23:23). Still the King James Version may have wished to emphasize that the prophets have a lower rank than the apostles.

Secret

Secret - se'-kret: In Ezekiel 7:22, English Versions of the Bible has "secret place" for (tsaphan), "hide," "treasure." A correct translation is, "They shall profane my cherished place" (Jerusalem), and there is no reference to the Holy of Holies. The other uses of "secret" in the Revised Version (British and American) are obvious, but Revised Version's corrections of the King James Version in Judges 13:18; 1 Samuel 5:9; Job 15:11 should be noted.

Sect

Sect - sekt (hairesis): "Sect" (Latin, secta, from sequi, "to follow") is in the New Testament the translation of hairesis, from haireo, "to take," "to choose"; also translated "heresy," not heresy in the later ecclesiastical sense, but a school or party, a sect, without any bad meaning attached to it. The word is applied to schools of philosophy; to the Pharisees and Sadducees among the Jews who adhered to a common religious faith and worship; and to the Christians. It is translated "sect" (Acts 5:17, of the Sadducees; Acts 15:5, of the Pharisees; Acts 24:5, of the Nazarenes; Acts 26:5, of the Pharisees; Acts 28:22, of the Christians); also the Revised Version (British and American) Acts 24:14 (the King James Version and the English Revised Version margin "heresy"), "After the Way which they call a sect, so serve I the God of our fathers" (just as the Pharisees were "a sect"); it is translated "heresies" (1 Corinthians 11:19, margin "sects," the American Standard Revised Version "factions," margin "Greek: `heresies' "; the English Revised Version reverses the American Standard Revised Version text and margin; Galatians 5:20, the American Standard Revised Version "parties," margin "heresies"; the English Revised Version reverses text and margin; 2 Peter 2:1, "damnable heresies," the Revised Version (British and American) "destructive heresies," margin "sects of perdition"); the "sect" in itself might be harmless; it was the teaching or principles which should be followed by those sects that would make them "destructive." Hairesis occurs in 1 Maccabees 8:30 ("They shall do it at their pleasure," i.e. "choice"); compare Septuagint Leviticus 22:18, 21.

See HERESY.

W. L. Walker

Secu

Secu - se'-ku (sekhu; Codex Vaticanus en Sephei; Codex Alexandrinus en Sokcho; the King James Version Sechu): This name occurs only in the account of David's visit to Samuel (1 Samuel 19:22). Saul, we are told, went to "Ramah, and came to the great well that is in Secu," where he inquired after Samuel and David. It evidently lay between the residence of Saul at Gibeah and Ramah. It is impossible to come to any sure conclusion regarding it. Conder suggested its identification with Khirbet Suweikeh, which lies to the South of Bireh. This is possible, but perhaps we should read with the Septuagint's Codex Vaticanus, "He came to the cistern of the threshing-floor that is on the bare hill" (en to Sephei). The threshing-floors in the East are naturally on high exposed ground where this is possible, and often form part of the area whence water in the rainy season is conducted to cisterns. This might have been a place actually within the city of Ramah.

W. Ewing

Secundus

Secundus - se-kun'-dus (Westcott-Hort Greek text Se'koundos, Textus Receptus of the New Testament, Sekou'ndos): A Thessalonian who was among those who accompanied Paul from Greece to Asia (Acts 20:4). They had preceded Paul and waited for him at Troas. If he were one of the representatives of the churches in Macedonia and Greece, entrusted with their contributions to Jerusalem (Acts 24:17; 2 Corinthians 8:23), he probably accompanied Paul as far as Jerusalem. The name is found in a list of politarchs on a Thessalonian inscription.

Secure; Security

Secure; Security - se-kur', se-ku'-ri-ti: The word baTach and its derivatives in Hebrew point to security, either real or imaginary. Thus we read of a host that "was secure" (Judges 8:11) and of those "that provoke God (and) are secure" (Job 12:6); but also of a security that rests in hope and is safe (Job 11:18). The New Testament words (poieo amerimnous), used in Matthew 28:14 (the King James Version "secure you"), guarantee the safety of the soldiers, who witnessed against themselves, in the telling of the story of the disappearance of the body of Christ.

Securely is used in the sense of "trustful," "not anticipating danger" (Proverbs 3:29; Micah 2:8; Ecclesiastes 4:15).

The word (hikanon, translated security (Acts 17:9), may stand either for a guaranty of good behavior exacted from, or for some form of punishment inflicted on, Jason and his followers by the rulers of Thessalonica.

Henry E. Dosker

Sedecias

Sedecias - sed-e-si'-as:

The King James Version = the Revised Version (British and American) SEDEKIAS (which see).

Sedekias

Sedekias - sed-e-ki'-as:

(1) (Codex Alexandrinus and Codex Vaticanus Sedekias; the King James Version Zedechias): 1 Esdras 1:46 (44) = Zedekiah king of Judah; also in Baruch 1:8 where the King James Version reads "Sedecias."

(2) In Baruch 1:1 (the King James Version "Sedecias"), an ancestor of Baruch, "the son of Asadias," sometimes (but incorrectly) identified with the false prophet "Zedekiah the son of Maaseiah" (Jeremiah 29:21).

Sedition

Sedition - se-dish'-un: The translation in Ezra 4:15, 19 for 'eshtaddur, "struggling," "revolt"; in 2 Esdras 15:16 for inconstabilitio, "instability" with "be seditious" for stasiazo, "rise in rebellion" in 2 Maccabees 14:6. In addition, the King James Version has "sedition" for stasis, "standing up," "revolt" (the Revised Version (British and American) "insurrection") in Luke 23:19, 25; Acts 24:5, with (dichostasia), "a standing asunder" (the Revised Version (British and American) "division") in Galatians 5:20. As "sedition" does not include open violence against a government, the word should not have been used in any of the above cases.

Seduce; Seducer

Seduce; Seducer - se-dus', se-dus'-er (Hiphil of (Ta`ah, or ta`ah, "to err"; of pathah, "to be simple"; planao, apoplanao, "to lead astray"): (1) The word "seduce" is only used in the Bible in its general meaning of "to lead astray," "to cause to err," as from the paths of truth, duty or religion. It occurs in the King James Version and the Revised Version (British and American) Ezekiel 13:10; 2 Kings 21:9; 1 Timothy 4:1; Revelation 2:20; in the King James Version only, Proverbs 12:26 (the Revised Version (British and American) "causeth to err"); Isaiah 19:13 (the Revised Version (British and American) "caused to go astray"); Mark 13:22; 1 John 2:26 (the Revised Version (British and American) "lead astray"). The noun "seducer" (2 Timothy 3:13 the King James Version, goes) is correctly changed in the Revised Version (British and American) into "impostor." (2) It is not found in its specific sense of "to entice a female to surrender her chastity." Yet the crime itself is referred to and condemned.

Three cases are to be distinguished: (a) The seduction of an unbetrothed virgin: In this case the seducer cording to J-E (Exodus 22:16 f) is to be compelled to take the virgin as his wife, if the father consents, and to pay the latter the usual purchase price, the amount of which is not defined. In the Deuteronomic Code (Deuteronomy 22:28) the amount is fixed at 50 shekels, and the seducer forfeits the right of divorce. (b) The seduction of a betrothed virgin: This case (Deuteronomy 22:23-27; not referred to in the other codes) is treated as virtually one of adultery, the virgin being regarded as pledged to her future husband as fully as if she were formally married to him; the penalty therefore is the same as for adultery, namely, death for both parties (except in the case where the girl can reasonably be acquitted of blame, in which case the man only is put to death). (c) The seduction of a betrothed bondmaid (mentioned only in Leviticus 19:20-22): Here there is no infliction of death, because the girl was not free; but the seducer shall make a trespass offering, besides paying the fine.

See CRIMES ; PUNISHMENTS.

D. Miall Edwards

See

See - se: In addition to the ordinary sense of perceiving by the eye, we have (1) chazah, "to see" (in vision): "Words of Amos .... which he saw concerning Israel" (Amos 1:1). The revelation was made to his inward eye. "The word of Yahweh .... which he (Micah) saw concerning Samaria" (Micah 1:1), describing what he saw in prophetic vision (compare Habakkuk 1:1); see REVELATION,III , 4; (2) horao, "to take heed": "See thou say nothing" (Mark 1:44); (3) eidon, "to know," "to note with the mind": "Jesus saw that he answered discreetly" (Mark 12:34); (4) theoreo, "to view," "to have knowledge or experience of": "He shall never see death" (John 8:51).

M. O. Evans

Seed

Seed - sed (Old Testament always for zera`, Aramaic (Daniel 2:43) zera`, except in Joel 1:17 for perudhoth (plural, the Revised Version (British and American) "seeds," the King James Version "seed"), and Leviticus 19:19 (the King James Version "mingled seed") and Deuteronomy 22:9 (the King James Version "divers seeds") for kil'ayim, literally, "two kinds," the Revised Version (British and American) "two kinds of seed." Invariably in Greek Apocrypha and usually in the New Testament for sperma, but Mark 4:26-27; Luke 8:5, 11; 2 Corinthians 9:10 for sporos, and 1 Peter 1:23 for spora): (1) For "seed" in its literal sense see AGRICULTURE. Of interest is the method of measuring land by means of the amount of seed that could be sown on it (Leviticus 27:16). The prohibition against using two kinds of seed in the same field (Leviticus 19:19; Deuteronomy 22:9) undoubtedly rests on the fact that the practice had some connection with Canaanitish worship, making the whole crop "consecrated" (taboo). Jeremiah 31:27 uses "seed of man" and "seed of beast" as a figure for the means by which God will increase the prosperity of Israel (i.e. "seed yielding men"). (2) For the transferred physiological application of the word to human beings (Leviticus 15:16, etc.) see CLEAN; UNCLEANNESS. The conception of Christians as "born" or "begotten" of God (see REGENERATION) gave rise to the figure in 1 Peter 1:23; 1 John 3:9. If the imagery is to be stressed, the Holy Spirit is meant. In 1 John 3:9 a doctrine of certain Gnostics is opposed. They taught that by learning certain formulas and by submitting to certain rites, union with God and salvation could be attained without holiness of life. John's reply is that union with a righteous God is meaningless without righteousness as an ideal, even though shortcomings exist in practice (1 John 1:8). (3) From the physiological use of "seed" the transition to the sense of "offspring" was easy, and the word may mean "children" (Leviticus 18:21, etc.) or even a single child (Genesis 4:25; 1 Samuel 1:11 the Revised Version margin). Usually, however, it means the whole posterity (Genesis 3:15, etc.); compare "seed royal" (2 Kings 11:1, etc.), and "Abraham's seed" (2 Chronicles 20:7, etc.) or "the holy seed" (Ezra 9:2; Isaiah 6:13; 1 Esdras 8:70; compare Jeremiah 2:21) as designations of Israel. So "to show one's seed" (Ezra 2:59;, Nehemiah 7:61) is to display one's genealogy, and "one's seed" may be simply one's nation, conceived of as a single family (Esther 10:3). From this general sense there developed a still looser use of "seed" as meaning simply "men" (Malachi 2:15; Isaiah 1:4; 57:4; Wisdom of Solomon 10:15; 12:11, etc.).

In Galatians 3:16 Paul draws a distinction between "seeds" and "seed" that has for its purpose a proof that the promises to Abraham were realized in Christ and not in Israel. The distinction, however, overstresses the language of the Old Testament, which never pluralizes zera` when meaning "descendants" (plural only in 1 Samuel 8:15; compare Romans 4:18; 9:7). But in an argument against rabbinical adversaries Paul was obliged to use rabbinical methods (compare Galatians 4:25). For modern purposes it is probably best to treat such an exegetical method as belonging simply to the (now superseded) science of the times.

Burton Scott Easton

Seer

Seer - se'-er, ser: The word in English Versions of the Bible represents two Hebrew words, ro'eh (1 Samuel 9:9, 11, 18-19; 2 Samuel 15:27; 1 Chronicles 9:22, etc.), And chozeh (2 Samuel 24:11; 2 Kings 17:13; 1 Chronicles 21:9; 25:5; 29:29, etc.). The former designation is from the ordinary verb "to see"; the latter is connected with the verb used of prophetic vision. It appears from 1 Samuel 9:9 that "seer" (ro'-eh) was the older name for those who, after the rise of the more regular orders, were called "prophets." It is not just, however, to speak of the "seers" or "prophets" of Samuel's time as on the level of mere fortune-tellers. What insight or vision they possessed is traced to God's Spirit. Samuel was the ro'-eh by pr-eeminence, and the name is little used after his time. Individuals who bear the title "seer" (chozeh) are mentioned in connection with the kings and as historiographers (2 Samuel 24:11; 1 Chronicles 21:9; 25:5; 29:29; 2 Chronicles 9:29; 12:15; 19:2, etc.), and distinction is sometimes made between "prophets" and "seers" (2 Kings 17:13; 1 Chronicles 29:29, etc.). Havernick thinks that "seer" denotes one who does not belong to the regular prophetic order (Introductions to Old Testament, 50 ff, English translation), but it is not easy to fix a precise distinction.

See PROPHET; PROPHECY.

James Orr

Seethe

Seethe - seth: Old English for "boil"; past tense, "sod" (Genesis 25:29), past participle, "sodden" (Lamentations 4:10). See Exodus 23:19 the King James Version.

Segub

Segub - se'-gub (seghubh (Qere), seghibh (Kethibh); Codex Vaticanus Zegoub; Codex Alexandrinus Segoub): 15:27; 1 Chronicles 9:22, etc.), And chozeh (2 Samuel 24:11; 2 Kings 17:13; 1 Chronicles 21:9; 25:5; 29:29, etc.). The former designation is from the ordinary verb "to see"; the latter is connected with the verb used of prophetic vision. It appears from 1 Samuel 9:9 that "seer" (ro'-eh) was the older name for those who, after the rise of the more regular orders, were called "prophets." It is not just, however, to speak of the "seers" or "prophets" of Samuel's time as on the level of mere fortune-tellers. What insight or vision they possessed is traced to God's Spirit. Samuel was the ro'-eh by pr-eeminence, and the name is little used after his time. Individuals who bear the title "seer" (chozeh) are mentioned in connection with the kings and as historiographers (2 Samuel 24:11; 1 Chronicles 21:9; 25:5; 29:29; 2 Chronicles 9:29; 12:15; 19:2, etc.), and distinction is sometimes made between "prophets" and "seers" (2 Kings 17:13; 1 Chronicles 29:29, etc.). Havernick thinks that "seer" denotes one who does not belong to the regular prophetic order (Introductions to Old Testament, 50 ff, English translation), but it is not easy to fix a precise distinction.

(1) The youngest son of Hiel, the rebuilder of Jericho (1 Kings 16:34). The death of Segub is probably connected with the primitive custom of laying foundations with blood, as, indeed, skulls were found built in with the brickwork when the tower of Bel at Nippur was excavated. See GEZER. If the death of the two sons was based on the custom just mentioned, the circumstance was deliberately obscured in the present account. The death of Segub may have been due to an accident in the setting up of the gates. In any event, tradition finally yoked the death of Hiel's oldest and youngest sons with a curse said to have been pronounced by Joshua on the man that should venture to rebuild Jericho (Joshua 6:26).

(2) Son of Hezron and father of Jair (1 Chronicles 2:21).

Horace J. Wolf

Seir

Seir - se'-ir:

(1) (har se'-ir, "Mt. Seir" (Genesis 14:6, etc.), 'erets se`-ir (Genesis 32:3, etc.); to oros Seeir, ge Seeir): In Genesis 32:3 "the land of Seir" is equated with "the field of Edom." The Mount and the Land of Seir are alternative appellations of the mountainous tract which runs along the eastern side of the Arabah, occupied by the descendants of Esau, who succeeded the ancient Horites (Genesis 14:6; 36:20), "cave-dwellers," in possession. For a description of the land see EDOM.

(2) (har se`ir; Codex Vaticanus Assar; Codex Alexandrinus Seeir): A landmark on the boundary of Judah (Joshua 15:10), not far from Kiriath-jearim and Chesalon. The name means "shaggy," and probably here denoted a wooded height. It may be that part of the range which runs Northeast from Saris by Karyat el-`Anab and Biddu to the plateau of el-Jib. Traces of an ancient forest are still to be seen here.

W. Ewing

Seirah

Seirah - se-i'-ra, se'-i-ra (ha-se`irah; Codex Vaticanus Seteirotha; Codex Alexandrinus Seeirotha; the King James Version, Seirath): The place to which Ehud escaped after his assassination of Eglon, king of Moab (Judges 3:26). The name is from the same root as the foregoing, and probably applied to some shaggy forest. The quarries by which he passed are said to have been by Gilgal (Judges 3:19), but there is nothing to guide us to an identification. Eusebius, in Onomasticon, gives the name, but no indication of the site.

Seirath

Seirath - se-i'-rath, se'-i-rath.

See SEIRAH.

Sela

Sela - se'-la (sela`, ha-cela` (with the article); petra, he petra; the King James Version Selah (2 Kings 14:7)): English Versions of the Bible renders this as the name of a city in 2 Kings 14:7; Isaiah 16:1. In Judges 1:36; 2 Chronicles 25:12; and Obadiah 1:3, it translates literally, "rock"; but the Revised Version margin in each case "Sela." It is impossible to assume with Hull (HD B, under the word) that this name, when it appears in Scripture, always refers to the capital of Edom, the great city in Wady Musa. In Judges 1:36 its association with the Ascent of Akrabbim shuts us up to a position toward the southwestern end of the Dead Sea. Probably in that case it does not denote a city, but some prominent crag. Moore ("Judges," ICC, 56), following Buhl, would identify it with es-Safieh, "a bare and dazzlingly white sandstone promontory 1,000 ft. high, East of the mud fiats of es-Sebkah, and 2 miles South of the Dead Sea." A more probable identification is a high cliff which commands the road leading from Wady el-Milh, "valley of Salt," to Edom, over the pass of Akrabbim. This was a position of strategic importance, and if fortified would be of great strength. (In this passage "Edomites" must be read for "Amorites.") The victory of Amaziah was won in the Valley of Salt. He would naturally turn his arms at once against this stronghold (2 Kings 14:7); and it may well be the rock from the top of which he hurled his prisoners (2 Chronicles 25:12). He called it Jokteel, a name the meaning of which is obscure. Possibly it is the same as Jekuthiel (1 Chronicles 4:18), and may mean "preservation of God" (OHL, under the word). No trace of this name has been found. The narratives in which the place is mentioned put identification with Petra out of the question.

"The rock" (the Revised Version margin "Sela") in Obadiah 1:3, in the phrase "thou that dwellest in the clefts of the rock." is only a vivid and picturesque description of Mt. Edom. "The purple mountains into which the wild sons of Esau clambered run out from Syria upon the desert, some hundred miles by twenty, of porphyry and red sandstone. They are said to be the finest rock scenery in the world. `Salvator Rosa never conceived so savage and so suitable a haunt for banditti.' .... The interior is reached by defiles so narrow that two horsemen may scarcely ride abreast, and the sun is shut out by the overhanging rocks. .... Little else than wild fowls' nests are, the villages: human eyries perched on high shelves or hidden away in caves at the ends of the deep gorges" (G. A. Smith. The Book of the Twelve Prophets. II. 178 f).

In Isaiah 16:1; 42:11 the Revised Version (British and American), perhaps we have a reference to the great city of Petra. Josephus (Ant., IV, vii, 1) tells us that among the kings of the Midianites who fell before Moses was one Rekem, king of Rekem (akre, or rekeme), the city deriving its name from its founder. This he says was the Arabic name; the Greeks called it Petra. Eusebius, Onomasticon says Petra is a city of Arabia in the land of Edom. It is called Jechthoel; but the Syrians call it Rekem. Jokteel, as we have seen, must be sought elsewhere. There can be no doubt that Josephus intended the city in Wady Musa. Its Old Testament name was Bozrah (Amos 1:12, etc.). Wetzstein (Excursus in Delitzsch's Isa, 696 ff) hazards the conjecture that the complete ancient nine was Bozrat has-Sela, "Bozrah of the Rock."

This "rose-red city half as old as Time"

Sela was for long difficult of access, and the attempt to visit it was fraught with danger. In recent years, however, it has been seen by many tourists and exploring parties. Of the descriptions written the best is undoubtedly that of Professor Dalman of Jerusalem (Petra und seine Felsheiligtumer, Leipzig, 1908). An excellent account of this wonderful city, brightly and interestingly written, will be found in Libbey and Hoskins' book (The Jordan Valley and Petra, New York and London, 1905; see also National Geographic Magazine, May, 1907, Washington, D.C.). The ruins lie along the sides of a spacious hollow surrounded by the many-hued cliffs of Edom, just before they sink into the Arabah on the West. It is near the base of Jebel Harun, about 50 miles from the Dead Sea, and just North of the watershed between that sea and the Gulf of Akaba. The valley owes its modern name, Wady Musa, "Valley of Moses," to its connection with Moses in Mohammedan legends. While not wholly inaccessible from other directions, the two usual approaches are that from the Southwest by a rough path, partly artificial, and that from the East. The latter is by far the more important. The valley closes to the East, the only opening being through a deep and narrow defile, called the Sik, "shaft," about a mile in length. In the bottom of the Sik flows westward the stream that rises at `Ain Musa, East of the cleft is the village of Elji, an ancient site, corresponding to Gaia of Eusebius (Onomasticon). Passing this village, the road threads its way along the shadowy winding gorge, overhung by lofty cliffs. When the valley is reached, a sight of extraordinary beauty and impressiveness opens to the beholder. The temples, the tombs, theater, etc., hewn with great skill and infinite pains from the living rock, have defied to an astonishing degree the tooth of time, many of the carvings being as fresh as if they had been cut yesterday. An idea of the scale on which the work was done may be gathered from the size of theater, which furnished accommodation for no fewer than 3,000 spectators.

Such a position could not have been overlooked in ancient times; and we are safe to assume that a city of importance must always have existed here. It is under the Nabateans, however, that Petra begins to play a prominent part in history. This people took possession about the end of the 4th century BC, and continued their sway until overcome by Hadrian, who gave his own name to the city--Hadriana. This name, however, soon disappeared. Under the Romans Petra saw the days of her greatest splendor.

According to old tradition Paul visited Petra when he went into Arabia (Galatians 1:17). Of this there is no certainty; but Christianity was early introduced, and the city became the seat of a bishopric. Under the Nabateans she was the center of the great caravan trade of that time. The merchandise of the East was brought hither; and hence, set out the caravans for the South, the West, and the North. The great highway across the desert to the Persian Gulf was practically in her hands. The fall of the Nabatean power gave Palmyra her chance; and her supremacy in the commerce of Northern Arabia dates from that time. Petra shared in the declining fortunes of Rome; and her death blow was dealt by the conquering Moslems, who desolated Arabia Petrea in 629-32 AD. The place now furnishes a retreat for a few poor Bedawy families.

W. Ewing

Selah

Selah - se'-la.

See MUSIC,II , 1.

Sela-hammahlekoth

Sela-hammahlekoth - se-la-ha-ma'-le-koth, -koth (cela`ha-machleqoth; petra he meristheisa): "The rock of divisions (or, escape)" (1 Samuel 23:28 margin). "Saul .... pursued after David in the wilderness of Maon. And Saul went on this side of the mountain, and David and his men on that side of the mountain: and David made haste to get away for fear of Saul" (1 Samuel 23:25-26). The name seems to survive in Wady Malaki, "the great gorge which breaks down between Carmel and Maon eastward, with vertical cliffs" (PEF, III, 314, Sh. XXI).

Seled

Seled - se'-led (tseledh): A Jerahmeelite (1 Chronicles 2:30 twice).

Selemia

Selemia - sel-e-mi'-a: One of the swift scribes whose services Ezra was commanded to secure (2 Esdras 14:24). The name is probably identical with SELEMIAS of 1 Esdras 9:34 (which see).

Selemias

Selemias - sel-e-mi'-as (Selemias): One of those who put away their "strange wives" (1 Esdras 9:34) = "Shelemiah". in Ezra 10:39, and probably identical with "Selemia" in 2 Esdras 14:24.

Seleucia

Seleucia - se-lu'-shi-a (Seleukia): The seaport of Antioch from which it is 16 miles distant. It is situated 5 miles North of the mouth of the Orontes, in the northwestern corner of a fruitful plain at the base of Mt. Rhosus or Pieria, the modern Jebel Musa, a spur of the Amanus Range. Built by Seleucus Nicator (died 280 BC) it was one of the Syrian Tetrapolis, the others being Apameia, Laodicea and Antioch. The city was protected by nature on the mountain side, and, being strongly fortified on the South and West, was considered invulnerable and the key to Syria (Strabo 751; Polyb. v.58). It was taken, however, by Ptolemy Euergetes (1 Maccabees 11:8) and remained in his family till 219 BC, when it was recovered for the Seleucids by Antiochus the Great, who then richly adorned it. Captured again by Ptolemy Philometor in 146 BC, it remained for a short time in the hands of the Egyptians. Pompey made it a free city in 64 BC in return for its energy in resisting Tigranes (Pliny, NH, v.18), and it was then greatly improved by the Romans, so that in the 1st century AD it was in a most flourishing condition.

On their first missionary journey Paul and Barnabas passed through it (Acts 13:4; 14:26), and though it is not named in Acts 15:30, 39, this route is again implied; while it is excluded in Acts 15:3.

The ruins are very extensive and cover the whole space within the line of the old walls, which shows a circuit of four miles. The position of the Old Town, the Upper City and the suburbs may still be identified, as also that of the Antioch Gate, the Market Gate and the King's Gate, which last leads to the Upper City. There are rock-cut tombs, broken statuary and sarcophagi at the base of the Upper City, a position which probably represents the burial place of the Seleucids. The outline of a circus or amphitheater can also be traced, while the inner harbor is in perfect condition and full of water. It is 2,000 ft. long by 1,200 ft. broad, and covers 47 acres, being oval or pear-shaped. The passage seaward, now silted up, was protected by two strong piers or moles, which are locally named after Barnabas and Paul. The most remarkable of the remains, however, is the great water canal behind the city, which the emperor Constantius cut through the solid rock in 338 AD. It is 3,074 ft. long, has an average breadth of 20 ft., and is in some places 120 ft. deep. Two portions of 102 and 293 ft. in length are tunneled. The object of the work was clearly to carry the mountain torrent direct to the sea, and so protect the city from the risk of flood during the wet season.

Church synods occasionally met in Seleucia in the early centuries, but it gradually sank into decay, and long before the advent of Islam it had lost all its significance.

W. M. Christie

Seleucidae

Seleucidae - se-lu'-si-de.

See SELEUCUS.

Seleucus

Seleucus - se-lu'-kus (Seleukos):

(1) Seleucus I (Nicator, "The Conqueror"), the founder of the Seleucids or House of Seleucus, was an officer in the grand and thoroughly equipped army, which was perhaps the most important part of the inheritance that came to Alexander the Great from his father, Philip of Macedon. He took part in Alexander's Asiatic conquests, and on the division of these on Alexander's death he obtained the satrapy of Babylonia. By later conquests and under the name of king, which he assumed in the year 306, he became ruler of Syria and the greater part of Asia Minor. His rule extended from 312 to 280 BC, the year of his death; at least the Seleucid era which seems to be referred to in 1 Maccabees 1:16 is reckoned from Seleucus I, 312 BC to 65 BC, when Pompey reduced the kingdom of Syria to a Roman province. He followed generally the policy of Alexander in spreading Greek civilization. He founded Antioch and its port Seleucia, and is said by Josephus (Ant., XII, iii, 1) to have conferred civic privileges upon the Jews. The reference in Daniel 11:5 is usually understood to be to this ruler.

(2) Seleucus II (Callinicus, "The Gloriously Triumphant"), who reigned from 246 to 226 BC, was the son of Antiochus Soter and is "the king of the north" in Daniel 11:7-9, who was expelled from his kingdom by Ptolemy Euergetes.

(3) Seleucus III (Ceraunus, "Thunderbolt"), son of Seleucus II, was assassinated in a campaign which he undertook into Asia Minor. He had a short reign of rather more than 2 years (226-223 BC) and is referred to in Daniel 11:10.

(4) Seleucus IV (Philopator, "Fond of his Father") was the son and successor of Antiochus the Great and reigned from 187 to 175 BC. He is called "King of Asia" (2 Maccabees 3:3), a title claimed by the Seleucids even after their serious losses in Asia Minor (see 1 Maccabees 8:6; 11:13; 12:39; 13:32). He was present at the decisive battle of Magnesia (190 BC). He was murdered by HELIODORUS (which see), one of his own courtiers whom he had sent to plunder the Temple (2 Maccabees 3:1-40; Daniel 11:20).

For the connection of the above-named Seleucids with the "ten horns" of Daniel 7:24, the commentators must be consulted.

Seleucus V (125-124 BC) and Seleucus VI (95-93 BC) have no connection with the sacred narrative.

J. Hutchison

Self-control

Self-control - self-kon-trol' (egkrateia): Rendered in the King James Version "temperance" (compare Latin temperario and continentia), but more accurately "self-control," as in the Revised Version (British and American) (Acts 24:25; Galatians 5:23; 2 Peter 1:6); adjective of same, egkrates, "self-controlled" (Titus 1:8 the Revised Version (British and American)); compare verb forms in 1 Corinthians 7:9, "have .... continency"; 1 Corinthians 9:25, the athlete "exerciseth self-control." Self-control is therefore repeatedly set forth in the New Testament as among the important Christian virtues.

Self-righteousness

Self-righteousness - self-ri'-chus-nes: A term that has come to designate moral living as a way of salvation; or as a ground for neglecting the redemptive work of Jesus Christ. The thought is present in the teaching of Jesus, who spoke one parable particularly to such as reckoned themselves to be righteous (Luke 18:9 ff). The Pharisees quite generally resented the idea of Jesus that all men needed repentance and they most of all. They regarded themselves as righteous and looked with contempt on "sinners." Paul in all his writings, especially Romans 3:1-31; Galatians 3:1-29; Ephesians 2:1-22; Philippians 3:1-21, contrasts the righteousness that is God's gift to men of faith in Jesus Christ, with righteousness that is "of the law" and "in the flesh." By this latter he means formal conformity to legal requirements in the strength of unregenerate human nature. He is careful to maintain (compare Romans 7:1-25) that the Law is never really kept by one's own power. On the other hand, in full agreement with Jesus, Paul looks to genuine righteousness in living as the demand and achievement of salvation based on faith. God's gift here consists in the capacity progressively to realize righteousness in life (compare Romans 8:1 ff).

Self-surrender

Self-surrender - self-su-ren'-der: The struggle between the natural human impulses of selfseeking, self-defence and the like, on the one hand, and the more altruistic impulse toward self-denial, self-surrender, on the other, is as old as the race. All religions imply some conception of surrender of self to deity, ranging in ethical quality from a heathen fanaticism which impels to complete physical exhaustion or rapture, superinduced by more or less mechanical means, to the high spiritual quality of self-sacrifice to the divinest aims and achievements. The Scriptures represent self-surrender as among the noblest of human virtues.

I. In the Old Testament. 1. Illustrious Examples: In the Old Testament self-surrender is taught in the early account of the first pair. Each was to be given to the other (Genesis 2:24; 3:16 b) and both were to be surrendered to God in perfect obedience (Genesis 3:1-15). The faithful ones, throughout the Bible narratives, were characterized by self-surrender. Abraham abandons friends and native country to go to a land unknown to him, because God called him to do so (Genesis 12:1). He would give up all his cherished hopes in his only son Isaac, at the voice of God (Genesis 22:1-18). Moses, at the call of Yahweh, surrenders self, and undertakes the deliverance of his fellow-Hebrews (Exodus 3:1 through Exodus 4:13; compare Hebrews 11:25). He would be blotted out of God's book, if only the people might be spared destruction (Exodus 32:32).

2. The Levitical System: The whole Levitical system of sacrifice may be said to imply the doctrine of self-surrender. The nation itself was a people set apart to Yahweh, a holy people, a surrendered nation (Exodus 19:5-6; 22:31; Leviticus 20:7; Deuteronomy 7:6; 14:2). The whole burnt offering implied the complete surrender of the worshipper to God (Leviticus 1:1-17). The ceremony for the consecration of priests emphasized the same fundamental doctrine (Leviticus 8:1-36); so also the law as to the surrender of the firstborn child (Exodus 13:13 ff; Exodus 22:29).

3. The Prophets: In the divine call to the prophets and in their life-work self-surrender is prominent. The seer, as such, must be receptive to the divine impress, and as mouthpiece of God, he must speak not his own words, but God's: "Thus saith the Lord." He was to be a "man of God," a "man of the spirit." `The hand of the Lord was upon me' (Ezekiel 1:3; 3:14) implies complete divine mastery. Isaiah must submit to the divine purification of his lips, and hearken to the inquiry, "who will go for us?" with the surrendered response, "Here am I; send me" (Isaiah 6:8). Jeremiah must yield his protestations of weakness and inability to the divine wisdom and the promise of endowment from above (Jeremiah 1:1-10). Ezekiel surrenders to the dangerous and difficult task of becoming messenger to a rebellious house (Ezekiel 2:1 through Ezekiel 3:3). Jonah, after flight from duty, at last surrenders to the divine will and goes to the Ninevites (Jonah 3:3).

4. Post-exilic Examples: On the return of the faithful remnant from captivity, self-giving for the sake of Israel's faith was dominant, the people enduring great hardships for the future of the nation and the accomplishment of Yahweh's purposes. This is the spirit of the great Messianic passage, Isaiah 53:7: "He was oppressed, yet when he was afflicted he opened not his mouth; as a lamb that is led to the slaughter, and as a sheep that before its shearers is dumb, so he opened not his mouth." Nehemiah surrendered position in Shushan to help reestablish the returned exiles in Jerusalem (Nehemiah 2:5). Esther was ready to surrender her life in pleading for the safety of her people (Esther 4:16).

II. In the New Testament. 1. Christ's Teaching and Example: In the New Testament self-surrender is still more clearly set forth. Christ's teachings and example as presented in the Gospels, give to it special emphasis. It is a prime requisite for becoming His disciple (Matthew 10:38 f; Matthew 16:24; Luke 9:23-24, 59 f; Luke 14:27, 33; compare Matthew 19:27; Mark 8:34). When certain of the disciples were called they left all and followed (Matthew 4:20; 9:9; Mark 2:14; Luke 5:27 f). His followers must so completely surrender self, as that father, mother, kindred, and one's own life must be, as it were, hated for His sake (Luke 14:26). The rich young ruler must renounce self as an end and give his own life to the service of men (Matthew 19:21; Mark 10:21; compare Luke 12:33). But this surrender of self was never a loss of personality; it was the finding of the true selfhood (Mark 8:35; Matthew 10:39). our Lord not only taught self-surrender, but practiced it. As a child, He subjected Himself to His parents (Luke 2:51). Self-surrender marked His baptism and temptation (Matthew 3:15; 4:1 ff). It is shown in His life of physical privation (Matthew 8:20). He had come not to do His own will, but the Fathers (John 4:34; 5:30; 6:38). He refuses to use force for His own deliverance (Matthew 26:53; John 18:11). In His person God's will, not His own, must be done (Matthew 26:29; Luke 22:42); and to the Father He at last surrendered His spirit (Luke 23:46). So that while He was no ascetic, and did not demand asceticism of His followers, He "emptied himself .... becoming obedient even unto death, yea, the death of the cross" (Philippians 2:7 f).

See KENOSIS.

2. Acts of Apostles: The early disciples practiced the virtue of self-surrender. Counting none of their possessions their own, they gave to the good of all (Acts 2:44-45; Acts 4:34-35, 37). Stephen and others threw themselves into their witnessing with the perfect abandon of the martyr; and Stephen's successor, Paul, counted not his life dear unto himself that he might finish the divinely-appointed course (Acts 20:22-24).

3. Epistles of Paul: The Epistles are permeated with the doctrine of self-surrender. The Pauline Epistles are particularly full of it. The Christian life is conceived of as a dying to self and to the world--a dying with Christ, a crucifixion of the old man, that a new man may live (Galatians 2:20; 6:14; Colossians 2:20; 3:3; Romans 6:6), so that no longer the man lives but Christ lives in him (Galatians 2:20; Philippians 1:21). The Christian is no longer his own but Christ's (1 Corinthians 6:19-20). He is to be a living sacrifice (Romans 12:1); to die daily (1 Corinthians 15:31). As a corollary to surrender to God, the Christian must surrender himself to the welfare of his neighbor, just as Christ pleased not Himself (Romans 15:3); also to leaders (1 Corinthians 16:16), and to earthly rulers (Romans 13:1).

4. Epistles of Peter: In the Epistles of Peter self-surrender is taught more than once. Those who were once like sheep astray now submit to the guidance of the Shepherd of souls (1 Peter 2:25). The Christian is to humble himself under the mighty hand of God (1 Peter 5:6); the younger to be subject to the elder (1 Peter 5:5); and all to civil ordinances for the Lord's sake (1 Peter 2:13).

So also in other Epistles, the Christian is to subject himself to God (James 4:7; Hebrews 12:9).

Edward Bagby Pollard

Self-will

Self-will - self-wil' (ratson; authades): Found once in the Old Testament (Genesis 49:6, "In their self-will they hocked an ox") in the death song of Jacob (see HOCK). The idea is found twice in the New Testament in the sense of "pleasing oneself": "not self-willed, not soon angry" (Titus 1:7); and "daring, self-willed, they tremble not to rail at dignities" (2 Peter 2:10). In all these texts it stands for a false pride, for obstinacy, for "a pertinacious adherence to one's will or wish, especially in opposition to the dictates of wisdom or propriety or the wishes of others."elfare of his neighbor, just as Christ pleased not Himself (Romans 15:3); also to leaders (1 Corinthians 16:16), and to earthly rulers (Romans 13:1).

Henry E. Dosker

Sell, Seller

Sell, Seller - sel'-er.

See TRADE; LYDIA.

Selvedge

Selvedge - sel'-vej (qatsah): The word occurs only in the description of the tabernacle (Exodus 26:4; 36:11). It has reference to the ten curtains which overhung the boards of the sanctuary. Five of these formed one set and five another. These were "coupled" at the center by 50 loops of blue connected by "clasps" (which see) with 50 others on the opposite side. The "selvedge" (self-edge) is the extremity of the curtain in which the loops were.

Sem

Sem - sem (Sem): the King James Version from the Greek form of Shem; thus the Revised Version (British and American) (Luke 3:36).

Semachiah

Semachiah - sem-a-ki'-a (cemakhyahu, "Yah has sustained"): A Korahite family of gatekeepers (1 Chronicles 26:7). Perhaps the same name should be substituted for "Ismachiah" in 2 Chronicles 31:13 (see HPN , 291, 295).

Semei

Semei - sem'-e-i:

(1) (Codex Alexandrinus Semei; Codex Vaticanus Semeei): One of those who put away their "strange wives" (1 Esdras 9:33) = "Shimei" "of the sons of Hashum" in Ezra 10:33.

(2) the King James Version = the Revised Version (British and American) "Semeias" (Additions to Esther 11:2).

(3) the King James Version form of the Revised Version (British and American) "Semein" (Luke 3:26).

Semeias

Semeias - se-me-i'-as (Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Alexandrinus Semeias; Codex Vaticanus Semeeias; the King James Version Semei): An ancestor of Mordecai (Additions to Esther 11:2) = "Shimei" (Esther 2:5).

Semein

Semein - se-me'-in (Codex Sinaiticus, Codex Vaticanus Semeein; Codex Alexandrinus Semeei, Textus Receptus of the New Testament, Semei; the King James Version, Semei): An ancestor of Jesus in Luke's genealogy (Luke 3:26).

Semeis

Semeis - sem'-e-is (Codex Alexandrinus and Fritzsche, Semeis; Codex Vaticanus Senseis; the King James Version, Semis): One of the Levites who put away their "strange wives" (1 Esdras 9:23) = "Shimei" in Ezra 10:23.

Semellius

Semellius - se-mel'-i-us: the King James Version = the Revised Version (British and American) SAMELLIUS (which see).

Semis

Semis - se'-mis: the King James Version = the Revised Version (British and American) SEMEIS (which see).

Semites, Semitic Religion

Semites, Semitic Religion - sem'-its, sem-it'-ik,

1. Biblical References

2. The Five Sons of Shem

3. Original Home of the Semites

4. Confusion with Other Races

5. Reliability of Genesis 10:1-32

6. Semitic Languages

7. Semitic Religion

(1) Its Peculiar Theism

(2) Personality of God

(3) Its View of Nature

(4) The Moral Being of God

LITERATURE

1. Biblical References: The words "Semites," "Semitic," do not occur in the Bible, but are derived from the name of Noah's oldest son, Shem (Genesis 5:32; 6:10; 18, 23 ff; Genesis 10:1, 21 f; Genesis 11:10 f; 1 Chronicles 1:1-54). Formerly the designation was limited to those who are mentioned in Genesis 10:1-32; Genesis 11:1-32 as Shem's descendants, most of whom can be traced historically and geographically; but more recently the title has been expanded to apply to others who are not specified in the Bible as Semites, and indeed are plainly called Hamitic, e.g. the Babylonians (Genesis 10:10) and the Phoenicians and Canaanites (Genesis 10:15-19). The grounds for the inclusion of these Biblical Hamites among the Semites are chiefly linguistic, although political, commercial and religious affinities are also considered. History and the study of comparative philology, however, suggest the inadequacy of a linguistic argument.

2. The Five Sons of Shem: The sons of Shem are given as Elam, Assbur, Arpachshad, Lud and Aram (Genesis 10:22). All except the third have been readily identified, Elam as the historic nation in the highlands East of the Tigris, between Media and Persia; Asshur as the Assyrians; Lud as the Lydians of Asia Minor; and Aram as the Syrians both East and West of the Euphrates. The greatest uncertainty is in the identification of Arpachshad, the most prolific ancestor of the Semites, especially of those of Biblical and more recent importance. From him descended the Hebrews and the Arab tribes, probably also some East African colonies (Genesis 10:24-30; Genesis 11:12-26). The form of his name 'arpakhshadh) has given endless trouble to ethnographers. McCurdy divides into two words, Arpach or Arpath, unidentified, and kesedh, the singular of kasdim, i.e. the Chaldeans; Schrader also holds to the Chaldean interpretation, and the Chaldeans themselves traced their descent from Arpachshad (Josephus, Ant, I, vi, 4); it has been suggested also to interpret as the "border of the Chaldeans" (BDB; Dillmann, in the place cited.). But the historic, ordinary and most satisfactory identification is with Arrapachitis, Northeast of Assyria at the headwaters of the Upper Zab in the Armenian highlands (so Ptolemy, classical geographers, Gesenius, Delitzsch). Delitzsch calls attention to the Armenian termination shadh (Commentary on Genesis, in the place cited.).

3. Original Home of the Semites: If we accept, then, this identification of Arpachshad as the most northeasterly of the five Semitic families (Genesis 10:22), we are still faced by the problem of the primitive home and racial origin of the Semites. Various theories of course have been proposed; fancy and surmise have ranged from Africa to Central Asia. (1) The most common, almost generally accepted, theory places their beginnings in Arabia because of the conservative and primitive Semitic of the Arabic language, the desert characteristics of the various branches of the race, and the historic movements of Semitic tribes northward and westward from Arabia. But this theory does not account for some of the most significant facts: e.g. that the Semitic developments of Arabia are the last, not the first, in time, as must have been the case if Arabia was the cradle of the race. This theory does not explain the Semitic origin of the Elamites, except by denial; much less does it account for the location of Arpachshad still farther north. It is not difficult to understand a racial movement from the mountains of the Northeast into the lowlands of the South and West. But how primitive Arabs could have migrated uphill, as it were, to settle in the Median and Armenian hills is a much more difficult proposition. (2) We must return to the historic and the more natural location of the ancient Semitic home on the hillsides and in the fertile valleys of Armenia. Thence the eldest branch migrated in prehistoric times southward to become historic Elam; Lud moved westward into Asia Minor; Asshur found his way down the Tigris to become the sturdy pastoral people of the middle Mesopotamian plateau until the invasion of the Babylonian colonists and civilization; Aram found a home in Upper Mesopotamia; while Arpachshad, remaining longer in the original home, gave his name to at least a part of it. There in the fertile valleys among the high hills the ancient Semites developed their distinctively tribal life, emphasizing the beauty and close relationship of Nature, the sacredness of the family, the moral obligation, and faith in a personal God of whom they thought as a member of the tribe or friend of the family. The confinement of the mountain valleys is just as adequate an explanation of the Semitic traits as the isolation of the oasis. So from the purer life of their highland home, where had been developed the distinctive and virile elements which were to impress the Semitic faith on the history of mankind, increasing multitudes of Semites poured over the mountain barriers into the broader levels of the plains. As their own-mountain springs and torrents sought a way to the sea down the Tigris and Euphrates beds, so the Semitic tribes followed the same natural ways into their future homes: Elam, Babylonia, Assyria, Mesopotamia, Arabia, Palestine. Those who settled Arabia sent further migrations into Africa, as well as rebounding into the desert west of the Euphrates, Syria and Palestine. Thus Western Asia became the arena of Semitic life, whose influences also reached Egypt and, through Phoenicia, the far-away West-Mediterranean.

4. Confusion with Other Races: While we may properly call Western and Southwestern Asia the home of the Semitic peoples, there still remains the difficulty of separating them definitely from the other races among whom they lived. The historic Babylonians, e.g., were Semites; yet they dispossessed an earlier non-Semitic people, and were themselves frequently invaded by other races, such as the Hittites, and even the Egyptians. It is not certain therefore which gods, customs, laws, etc., of the Babylonians were Semites, and not adopted from those whom they superseded.

Assyria was racially purely Semitic, but her laws, customs, literature, and many of her gods were acquired from Babylonia; to such an extent was this true that we are indebted to the library of the Assyrian Ashurbanipal for much that we know of Babylonian religion, literature and history. In Syria also the same mixed conditions prevailed, for through Syria by the fords of the Euphrates lay the highway of the nations, and Hittite and Mitannian at times shared the land with her, and left their influence. Possibly in Arabia Semitic blood ran purest, but even in Arabia there were tribes from other races; and the table of the nations in Gen divides that land among the descendants of both Ham and Shem (see TABLE OF NATIONS). Last of all, in Palestine, from the very beginning of its historic period, we find an intermingling and confusion of races and religions such as no other Semitic center presents. A Hamitic people gave one of its common names to the country--Canaan, while the pagan and late-coming Philistine gave the most used name--Palestine. The archaic remains of Horite, Avite and Hivite are being uncovered by exploration; these races survived in places, no doubt, long after the Semitic invasion, contributing their quota to the customs and religious practices of the land. The Hittite also was in the land, holdling outposts from his northern empire, even in the extreme south of Palestine. If the blue eyes and fair complexions of the Amorites pictured on Egyptian monuments are true representations, we may believe that the gigantic Aryans of the North had their portion also in Palestine

5. Reliability of Genesis 10: It is customary now in Biblical ethnology to disregard the classification of Genesis 10:1-32, and to group all the nations of Palestine as Semitic, especially the Canaanite and the Phoenician along with the Hebrew. McCurdy in the Standard BD treats the various gods and religious customs of Palestine as though they were all Semitic, although uniformly these are represented in the Old Testament as perversions and enormities of alien races which the Hebrews were commanded to extirpate. The adoption of them would be, and was, inimical to their own ancestral faith. Because the Hebrews took over eventually the language of the Phoenician, appropriated his art and conveniences, did traffic in his ships, and in Ahab's reign adopted his Baal and Astarte, we are not warranted at all in rushing to the conclusion that the Phoenicians represented a primitive Semitic type. Racial identification by linguistic argument is always precarious, as history clearly shows. One might as well say that Latin and the gospel were Saxon. There are indications that the customs and even the early language of the Hebrews were different from those of the people whom they subdued and dispossessed. Such is the consistent tradition of their race, the Bible always emphasizing the irreconcilable difference between their ancestral faith and the practices of the people of Canaan. We may conclude that the reasons for disregarding the classification of Gen with reference to the Semites and neighboring races are not final. Out from that fruitful womb of nations, the Caucasus, the Semites, one branch of the C Caucasian peoples, went southwestward--as their cousins the Hamites went earlier toward the South and as their younger relatives, the Aryans, were to go northward and westward--with marked racial traits and a pronounced religious development, to play a leading part in the life of man.

6. Semitic Languages: The phrase Semitic Languages is used of a group of languages which have marked features in common, which also set them off from other languages. But we must avoid the unnecessary inference that nations using the same or kindred languages are of the same ancestry. There are other explanations of linguistic affinity than racial, as the Indians of Mexico may speak Spanish, and the Germans of Milwaukee may speak English. So also neighboring or intermingled nations may just as naturally have used branches of the Semitic language stock. However, it is true that the nations which were truly Semitic used languages which are strikingly akin. These have been grouped as (1) Eastern Sere, including Babylonian and Assyrian; (2) Northern, including Syriac and Aramaic; (3) Western, including Canaanite, or Phoenician, and Hebrew, and (4) Southern, including Arabic, Sabean and Ethiopic (compare Geden, Introduction to the Hebrew Bible, 14-28). The distinctive features of this family of languages are (1) the tri-literal root, (2) the consonantal writing, vowel indications being unnecessary so long as the language was spoken, (3) the meager use of moods and tenses in verbal inflection, every action being graphically viewed as belonging to one of two stages in time: completed or incomplete, (4) the paucity of parts of speech, verb and noun covering nearly all the relations of words, (5) the frequent use of internal change in the inflection of words, e.g. the doubling of a consonant or the change of a vowel, and (6) the use of certain letters, called "serviles," as prefixes or suffixes in inflection; these are parts of pronouns or the worn-down residua of nouns and particles. The manner of writing was not uniform in these languages, Babylonian and Assyrian being ideographic and syllabic, and written from left to right, while Aramaic, Hebrew and Arabic were alphabetic and written from right to left. The primitive forms and inflections of the group are best preserved in the Arabic by reason of the conservatism of the desert peoples, and in the Assyrian by the sudden destruction of that empire and the burial of the records of that language in a comparatively pure state, to be brought back to light by 19th-century exploration. All the characteristics given above are clearly manifest in the Hebrew of the Old Testament.

7. Semitic Religion: In the study of Semitic Religion there are two tendencies toward error: (1) the Western pragmatical and unsympathetic overtaxing of oriental Nature-symbols and vividly imaginative speech. Because the Semite used the figure of the rock (Deuteronomy 32:4, 18, 30) in describing God, or poetically conceived of the storm-cloud as Yahweh's chariot (Psalms 104:3), we must not be led into believing that his religion was a savage animism, or that Yahweh of Israel was only the Zeus of the Greeks. How should an imaginative child of Nature speak of the unseen Spiritual Power, except in the richest analogies of Nature? (2) The second error is the tendency to treat the accretions acquired by contact with other nations as of the essence of Semitic religion, e.g. the golden calf following the Egyptian bondage, and the sexual abominations of the Canaanite Baal and Astarte.

The primitive and distinctive beliefs of the Semitic peoples lie still in great uncertainty because of the long association with other peoples, whose practices they readily took over, and because of the lack of records of the primitive periods of Semitic development, their origin and dispersion among the nations being prehistoric. Our sources of information are the Babylonian and Assyrian tablets and monuments, the Egyptian inscriptions, Phoenician history, Arabian traditions and inscriptions, and principally the Old Testament Scriptures. We can never know perhaps how much the pure Semitism ofBabylonians and Assyrians was diverted and corrupted by the developed civilization which they invaded and appropriated; Egypt was only indirectly affected by Semitic life; Semitic development in Arabia was the latest in all the group, besides which the monuments and reste of Arabian antiquity which have come down to us are comparatively few; and the Phoenician development was corrupted by the sensuality of the ancient Canaanitish cults, while the Bible of the Hebrews emphatically differentiated from the unwholesome religions of Palestine their own faith, which was ancestral, revealed and pure. Was that Bible faith the primitive Semitic cult? At least we must take the Hebrew tradition at its face value, finding in it the prominent features of an ancestral faith, preserved through one branch of the Semitic group. We are met frequently in these Hebrew records by the claim that the religion they present is not a new development, nor a thing apart from the origin of their race, but rather the preservation of an ancient worship, Abraham, Moses and the prophets appearing not as originators, but reformers, or revivers, who sought to keep their people true to an inherited religion. Its elemental features are the following:

(1) Its Peculiar Theism: It was pronouncedly theistic; not that other religions do not affirm a god; but theism of the Semites was such as to give their religion a unique place among all others. To say the least, it had the germ of monotheism or the tendency toward monotheism, if we have not sufficient evidence to affirm its monotheism, and to rate the later polytheistic representations of Babylonia and Assyria as local perversions. If the old view that Semitic religion was essentially monotheistic be incapable of proof, it is true that the necessary development of their concept of God must ultimately arrive at monotheism. This came to verification in Abram the Hebrew, Jesus the Messiah (John 4:21-24) and Mohammed the false prophet. A city-state exclusively, a nation predominantly, worshipped one god, often through some Nature-symbol, as sun or star or element. With the coming of world-conquest, intercourse and vision, the one god of the city or the chief god of the nation became universalized. The ignorant and materialistic Hebrew might localize the God of Israel in a city or on a hilltop; but to the spiritual mind of Amos or in the universal vision of Isaiah He was Yahweh, Lord of all the earth.

(2) Personality of God: Closely related to this high conception of Deity was the apparently contradictory but really potent idea of the Deity as a personality. The Semite did not grossly materialize his God as did the savage, nor vainly abstract and etherealize Him and so eliminate Him from the experience of man as did the Greek; but to him God universal was also God personal and intimate. The Hebrew ran the risk of conditioning the spirituality of God in order to maintain His real personality. Possibly this has been the most potent element in Semitic religion; God was not far from every one of them. He came into the closest relations as father or friend. He was the companion of king and priest. The affairs of the nation were under His immediate care; He went to war with armies, was a partner in harvest rejoicings; the home was His abode. This conception of Deity carried with it the necessary implication of revelation (Amos 3:8). The office, message and power of the Hebrew prophet were also the logical consequence of knowing God as a Person.

(3) Its View of Nature: Its peculiar view of Nature was another feature of Semitic religion. God was everywhere and always present in Nature; consequently its symbolism was the natural and ready expression of His nature and presence. Simile, parable and Nature-marvels cover the pages and tablets of their records. Unfortunately this poetic conception of Nature quickly enough afforded a ready path in which wayward feet and carnal minds might travel toward Nature-worship with all of its formalism and its degrading excesses. This feature of Semitic religion offers an interesting commentary on their philosophy. With them the doctrine of Second Causes received no emphasis; God worked directly in Nature, which became to them therefore the continuous arena of signs and marvels. The thunder was His voice, the sunshine reflected the light of His countenance, the winds were His messengers. And so through this imaginative view of the world the Semite dwelt in an enchanted realm of the miraculous.

(4) The Moral Being of God: The Semite believed in a God who is a moral being. Such a faith in the nature of it was certain to influence profoundly their own moral development, making for them a racial character which has been distinctive and persistent through the changes of millenniums. By it also they have impressed other nations and religions, with which they have had contact. The Code of Hammurabi is an expression of the moral issues of theism. The Law and the Prophets of Israel arose out of the conviction of God's righteousness and of the moral order of His universe (Exodus 19:5-6; Isaiah 1:16-20). The Decalogue is a confession of faith in the unseen God; the Law of Holiness (Leviticus 17:1-16 through Leviticus 26:1-46) is equally a moral code.

While these elements are not absent altogether from other ancient religions, they are pronouncedly characteristic of the Semitic to the extent that they have given to it its permanent form, its large development, and its primacy among the religions of the human race. To know God, to hear His eternal tread in Nature, to clothe Him with light as with a garment, to establish His throne in righteousness, to perceive that holiness is the all-pervading atmosphere of His presence--such convictions were bound to affect the life and progress of a rate, and to consecrate them as a nation of priests for all mankind.

LITERATURE.

For discussion of the details of Semitic peoples and religions reference must be made to the particular articles, such as ARPACHSHAD; EBER; ABRAHAM; HAMMURABI; ASSYRIA; BABYLONIA; BAAL; ASHTORETH; ASHERITES; MOLOCH; CHEMOSH; CHIUN; ISRAEL, RELIGION OF etc. The literature on the subject is vast, interesting and far from conclusive. Few of the Bible Dictionaries have articles on this particular subject; reference should be made to those in the Standard and in the HDB, volume both by McCurdy; "Semites" in Catholic Encyclopedia skims the surface; articles in International Eric are good. In Old Testament Theologies, Davidson, pp. 249-52; Schultz, chapter iii of volume I; Riehm, Alttestamentliche Theologie; Delitzsch, Psychology of the Old Testament. For language see Wright's Comparative Grammar of Semitic Languages. For history and religion: Maspero's three volumes; McCurdy, HPM; Hommel. Ancient Hebrew Tradition, and Semitic Volker u. Sprache; Jastrow, Comparative Semitic Religion; Friedr. Delitzsch, Babel u. Bibel; W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites.

Edward Mack

Senaah

Senaah - se-na'-a, sen'-a-a (cena'ah; Codex Vaticanus Sanana; Sananat; Codex Alexandrinus Sanana, Sennaa, Hasan): The children of Senaah are mentioned as having formed part of the company returning from the captivity with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2:35; Nehemiah 7:38). The numbers vary as given by Ezr (3,630) and Neh (3,930), while 1 Esdras 5:23 puts them at 3,330. In the last place the name is Sanaas, the King James Version "Annaas" (Codex Vaticanus Sama; Codex Alexandrinus Sanaas). In Nehemiah 3:3 the name occurs with the definite article, ha-senaah. The people may be identical with the Benjamite clan Hassenuah (1 Chronicles 9:7). Eusebius, in Onomasticon, speaks of Magdalsenna a village about 7 miles North of Jericho, which may be the place intended; but the site is not known.

W. Ewing

Senate; Senator

Senate; Senator - sen'-at, sen'-a-ter: In Psalms 105:22, "teach his senators (the Revised Version (British and American) "elders") wisdom." The Hebrew is zaqen, "elder" Septuagint presbuteroi). In Acts 5:21, "called the council together and all the senate of the children of Israel." The Greek gerousia, is here evidently used as a more precise equivalent of the foregoing "council" (sunedrion), to which it is added by kai, explicative. Reference is had to the Sanhedrin. See SANHEDRIN. This term gerousia occurs in Septuagint Exodus 3:16, etc., and in 1 Maccabees 12:6; 2 Maccabees 1:10; 4:44 of the supreme council of the Jews (see GOVERNMENT). In 1 Maccabees 8:15; 12:3, bouleuterion, is used of the Roman senate, which is said to consist of 320 members meeting daily, consulting always for the people, to the end that they may be well governed. These statements are not quite accurate, since the senate consisted normally of 300 members, and met not daily, but on call of the magistrates. Originally, like the gerousia of the Jews, the representatives of families and clans (gentes), the senators were subsequently the ex-magistrates, supplemented, to complete the tale of members, by representatives of patrician (in time also of plebeian) families selected by the censor. The tenure was ordinarily for life, though it might be terminated for cause by the censor. Although constitutionally the senate was only an advisory body, its advice (senatus consultum, auctoritas) in fact became in time a mandate which few dared to disregard. During the republican period the senate practically ruled Rome; under the empire it tended more and more to become the creature and subservient tool of the emperors.

William Arthur Heidel

Seneh

Seneh - se'-ne (ceneh; Senna): This was the name attaching to the southern of the two great cliffs between which ran the gorge of Michmash (1 Samuel 14:4). The name means "acacia," and may have been given to it from the thorn bushes growing upon it. Josephus (BJ, V, ii, 1) mentions the "plain of thorns" near Gabathsaul. We may hear an echo of the old name in that of Wady Suweinit, "valley of the little thorn tree," the name by which the gorge is known today. The cliff must have stood on the right side of the wady; see BOZEZ. Conder gives an excellent description of the place in Tent Work in Palestine, II, 112-14.

W. Ewing

Senir

Senir - se'-nir (senir; Saneir): This was the Amorite name of Mt. Hermon, according to Deuteronomy 3:9 (the King James Version "Shenir").' But in 1 Chronicles 5:23; Song of Solomon 4:8, we have Senir and Hermon named as distinct mountains. It seems probable, however, that Senir applied to a definite part of the Anti-Lebanon or Hermon range. An inscription of Shalmaneser tells us that Hazael, king of Damascus, fortified Mt. Senir over against Mt. Lebanon. So in Ezekiel 27:5, Senir, whence the Tyrians got planks of fir trees, is set over against Lebanon, where cedars were obtained. The Arab geographers give the name Jebel Sanir to the part of the Anti-Lebanon range which lies between Damascus and Homs (Yakut, circa 1225 AD, quoted by Guy le Strange in Palestine under the Moslems, 79. He also quotes Mas`udi, 943 AD, to the effect that Baalbek is in the district of Senir, 295).

W. Ewing

Sennacherib

Sennacherib - se-nak'-er-ib (cancheribh; Sennachereim, Assyrian Sin-akhierba, "the moon-god Sin has increased the brothers"): Sennacherib (704-682 BC) ascended the throne of Assyria after the death of his father Sargon. Appreciating the fact that Babylon would be difficult to control, instead of endeavoring to conciliate the people he ignored them. The Babylonians, being indignant, crowned a man of humble origin, Marduk-zakir-shum by name. He ruled only a month, having been driven out by the irrepressible Merodach-baladan, who again appeared on the scene.

In order to fortify himself against Assyria the latter sent an embassy to Hezekiah, apparently for the purpose of inspiring the West to rebel against Assyria (2 Kings 20:12-19).

Sennacherib in his first campaign marched into Babylonia. He found Merodach-baladan entrenched at Kish, about 9 miles from Babylon, and defeated him; after which he entered the gates of Babylon, which had been thrown open to him. He placed a Babylonian, named Bel-ibni, on the throne.

This campaign was followed by an invasion of the country of the Cassites and Iasubigalleans. In his third campaign he directed his attention to the West, where the people had become restless under the Assyrian yoke. Hezekiah had been victorious over the Philistines (2 Kings 18:8). In preparation to withstand a siege, Hezekiah had built a conduit to bring water within the city walls (2 Kings 20:20). Although strongly opposed by the prophet Isaiah, gifts were sent to Egypt, whence assistance was promised (Isaiah 30:1-4). Apparently also the Phoenicians and Philistines, who had been sore pressed by Assyria, had made provision to resist Assyria. The first move was at Ekron, where the Assyrian governor Padi was put into chains and sent to Hezekiah at Jerusalem.

Sennacherib, in 701 BC, moved against the cities in the West. He ravaged the environs of Tyre, but made no attempt to take the city, as he was without a naval force. After Elulaeus the king of Sidon fled, the city surrendered without a battle, and Ethbaal was appointed king. Numerous cities at once sent presents to the king of Assyria. Ashkelon and other cities were taken. The forces of Egypt were routed at Eltekeh, and Ekron was destroyed. He claims to have conquered 46 strongholds of Hezekiah's territory, but he did not capture Jerusalem, for concerning the king he said, in his annals, "himself like a bird in a cage in Jerusalem, his royal city, I penned him." He states, also, how he reduced his territory, and how Hezekiah sent to him 30 talents of gold and 800 talents of silver, besides hostages.

The Biblical account of this invasion is found in 2 Kings 18:13 through 2 Kings 19:37; Isaiah 36:1-22; Isaiah 37:1-38. The Assyrian account differs considerably from it; but at the same time it corroborates it in many details. One of the striking parallels is the exact amount of gold which Hezekiah sent to the Assyrian king (see The Expository Times,XII , 225,405;XIII , 326).

In the following year Sennacherib returned to Babylonia to put down a rebellion by Bal-ibni and Merodach-baladan. The former was sent to Assyria, and the latter soon afterward died. Ashurnadin-shum, the son of Sennacherib, was then crowned king of Babylon. A campaign into Cilicia and Cappadocia followed.

In 694 BC Sennacherib attacked the Elamites, who were in league with the Babylonians. In revenge, the Elamites invaded Babylonia and carried off Ashur-nadin-shum to Elam, and made Nergalushezib king of Babylon. He was later captured and in turn carried off to Assyria. In 691 BC Sennacherib again directed his attention to the South, and at Khalute fought with the combined forces. Two years later he took Babylon, and razed it to the ground.

In 681 BC Sennacherib was murdered by his two sons (2 Kings 19:37; see SHAREZER). Esar-haddon their younger brother, who was at the time conducting a campaign against Ararat, was declared king in his stead.

A. T. Clay

Senses

Senses - sen'-siz: The translation of aistheterion (Hebrews 5:14, "those who by reason of use have their senses exercised to discern good and evil"). The word means, primarily, the seat of the senses, the region of feeling; in the Septuagint of Jeremiah 4:19, it represents the Hebrew qir, "the walls of the heart" (see the Revised Version (British and American)), and is used to denote the internal sense or faculty of perceiving and judging, which in Hebrews 5:14 is regarded as becoming perfected by use or exercise (compare Ephesians 4:12 f; 1 Timothy 4:7; 2 Peter 3:18).

In 2 Esdras 10:36 we have "Or is my sense deceived, or my soul in a dream?" Latin sensus, here "mind" rather than "sense."

W. L. Walker

Sensual

Sensual - sen'-shoo-al (psuchikos, "animal," "natural"): Biblical psychology has no English equivalent for this Greek original. Man subject to the lower appetites is sarkikos, "fleshly"; in the communion of his spirit with God he is pneumatikos, "spiritual." Between the two is the psuche, "soul," the center of his personal being. This ego or "I"in each man is bound to the spirit, the higher nature; and to the body or lower nature.

The soul (psuche) as the seat of the senses, desires, affections, appetites, passions, i.e. the lower animal nature common to man with the beasts, was distinguished in the Pythagorean and Platonic philosophy from the higher rational nature (nous, pneuma).

The subjection of the soul to the animal nature is man's debasement, to the spirit indwelt of God is his exaltation. The English equivalent for psuchikos, "psychic" does not express this debasement. In the New Testament "sensual" indicates man's subjection to self and self-interest, whether animal or intellectual--the selfish man in whom the spirit is degraded into subordination to the debased psuche, "soul." This debasement may be (1) intellectual, "not wisdom .... from above, but .... earthly, sensual" (James 3:15); (2) carnal (and of course moral), "sensual, having not the Spirit" (Jude 1:19). It ranges all the way from sensuous self-indulgence to gross immorality. In the utter subjection of the spirit to sense it is the utter exclusion of God from the life. Hence, "the natural (psuchikos) man receiveth not the things of the Spirit of God" (1 Corinthians 2:14). The term is equivalent to "the mind of the flesh" (Romans 8:7) which "is not subject to the law of God."

See PSYCHOLOGY.

Dwight M. Pratt

Sent

Sent - (shalach; apostello): "Sent" in the Old Testament is the translation of shalach, "to send" (of presents, messengers, etc., Genesis 32:18; 44:3; Judges 6:14; 1 Kings 14:6; Esther 3:13; Proverbs 17:11; Jeremiah 49:14; Ezekiel 3:5; 23:40; Daniel 10:11; Obadiah 1:1); of shelach, Aramaic (Ezra 7:14; Daniel 5:24); of shilluchim, "sending" (Exodus 18:2); in the New Testament of apostello, "to send off" or "away," "to send forth" (John 9:7, "the pool of Siloam (which is by interpretation, Sent)"); compare Luke 13:4; Nehemiah 3:15, the pool of Siloah, the Revised Version (British and American) "Shelah"; Isaiah 8:6, "the waters of Shiloah that go softly," where Septuagint has Siloam for Hebrew shiloach, "a sending," which, rather than "Sent," is the original meaning--a sending forth of waters. See SILOAM. "Sent" is also the translation of apostolos, "one sent forth" (the original of the familiar word "apostle"); in John 13:16, "one that is sent" (margin, "Greek `an apostle'"); compare Hebrews 1:14.

W. L. Walker

Sentence

Sentence - sen'-tens: Eight Hebrew and three Greek words are thus translated in the King James Version. Sometimes it points to a mystery (Daniel 5:12; 8:23); then again to the contents of the Law (Deuteronomy 17:11); then again to the idea of judgment (Psalms 17:2) or of a judicial sentence (2 Corinthians 1:9; Luke 23:24), or of judicial advice (Acts 15:19, the American Standard Revised Version "judgment").

Senuah

Senuah - se-nu'-a, sen'-u-a (cenu'ah): In the King James Version "A Benjamite" (Nehemiah 11:9); the Revised Version (British and American) has "Hassenuah," transliterating the definite article the King James Version is to be preferred (compare 1 Chronicles 9:7).

Seorim

Seorim - se-o'-rim, se-or'-im (se`orim): The name borne by one of the (post-exilic) priestly courses (1 Chronicles 24:8).

Separate

Separate - sep'-a-rat: The translation of a number of Hebrew and Greek words, badhal (Leviticus 20:24, etc.), and aphorizo (Matthew 25:32, etc.), being the most common. "To separate" and "to consecrate" were originally not distinguished (e.g. Numbers 6:2 margin), and probably the majority of the uses of "separate" in English Versions of the Bible connote "to set apart for God." But precisely the same term that is used in this sense may also denote the exact opposite (e.g. the use of nazar in Ezekiel 14:7 and Zechariah 7:3).

See HOLINESS; NAZIRITE; SAINTS.

Separation

Separation - sep-a-ra'-shun: In the Pentateuch the word niddah specially points to a state of ceremonial uncleanness (Leviticus 12:2, 5; 15:20 ff; Numbers 6:4 ff; Numbers 12:13; 19:21). For a description of the "water of purification," used for cleansing what was ceremonially unclean (Numbers 19:1-22), see HEIFER, RED; UNCLEANNESS. For "separation" in the sense of nezer, see NAZIRITE.