International Standard Bible Encyclopedia

Only Begotten — Ozora

Only Begotten

Only Begotten - on'-li be-got-'-'n (monogenes): Although the English words are found only 6 times in the New Testament, the Greek word appears 9 times, and often in the Septuagint. It is used literally of an only child: "the only son of his mother" (Luke 7:12); "an only daughter" (Luke 8:42); "mine only child" (Luke 9:38); "Isaac .... his only begotten" (Hebrews 11:17). In all other places in the New Testament it refers to Jesus Christ as "the only begotten Son of God" (John 1:14, 18; 16, 18; 1 John 4:9). In these passages, too, it might be translated as "the only son of God"; for the emphasis seems to be on His uniqueness, rather than on His sonship, though both ideas are certainly present. He is the son of God in a sense in which no others are. "Monogenes describes the absolutely unique relation of the Son to the Father in His divine nature; prototokos describes the relation of the Risen Christ in His glorified humanity to man" (Westcott on Hebrews 1:6). Christ's uniqueness as it appears in the above passages consists of two things: (a) He reveals the Father: "No man hath seen God at any time; the only begotten Son, who is in the bosom of the Father, he hath declared him" (John 1:18). Men therefore behold His glory, "glory as of the only begotten from the Father" (John 1:14). (b) He is the mediator of salvation: "God hath sent his only begotten Son into the world that we might live through him" (1 John 4:9; John 3:16); "He that believeth not (on him) hath been judged already" (John 3:18). Other elements in His uniqueness may be gathered from other passages, as His sinlessness, His authority to forgive sins, His unbroken communion with the Father, and His unique knowledge of Him. To say that it is a uniqueness of nature or essence carries thought no farther, for these terms still need definition, and they can be defined only in terms of His moral consciousness, of His revelation of God, and especially of His intimate union as Son with the Father.

The reading "God only begotten" in John 1:18 the Revised Version margin, though it has strong textual support, is improbable, and can well be explained as due to orthodox zeal, in opposition to adoptionism. See Grimm-Thayer, Lexicon; Westcott, at the place

T. Rees

Ono

Ono - o'-no ('ono; Codex Vaticanus Onan; Codex Alexandrinus Ono, and other forms): A town mentioned along with Lod as fortified by certain Benjamites (1 Chronicles 8:12). The Mishna (Arakhin ix.6) says that Joshua fortified it, but there is no such early notice of it in Scripture. It was occupied by Benjamites after the return from exile (Ezra 2:33; Nehemiah 7:37; 11:35). In one of the villages in the plain of Ono, Sanballat and his friends vainly tried to inveigle Nehemiah into a conference (6:2). It is represented by the modern Kefr `Ana, which lies to the Northwest of Lydda. In 1 Esdras 5:22, the name appears as "Onus."

W. Ewing

Onus

Onus - o'-nus.

See ONO.

Onycha

Onycha - on'i-ka (shecheleth; compare Arabic suchalat, "filings," "husks"): "Onycha" is a transliteration of the Septuagint onucha, accusative of onux, which means "nail," "claw," "hoof," and also "onyx," a precious stone. The form "onycha" was perhaps chosen to avoid confusion with "onyx," the stone. The Hebrew shecheleth occurs only in Exodus 30:34 as an ingredient of the sacred incense. It is supposed to denote the horny operculum found in certain species of marine gasteropod molluscs. The operculum is a disk attached to the upper side of the hinder part of the "foot" of the mollusc. When the animal draws itself into its shell, the hinder part of the foot comes last, and the operculum closes the mouth of the shell. The operculum, which may be horny or stony, is absent in some species. The horny opercula when burned emit a peculiar odor, and are still used in combination with other perfumes by the Arab women of Upper Egypt and Nubia. (See Sir S. Baker, The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia, cited by EB, under the word "Onycha.")

Alfred Ely Day

Onyx

Onyx - on'-iks o'-niks.

See STONES, PRECIOUS.

Open

Open - o'-p'-n: In the Old Testament represents chiefly pathach, but also other words, as galah, "to uncover"; of the opening of the eyes in vision, etc. (thus Balaam, Numbers 22:31; 24:4; compare Job 33:16; 36:10; Psalms 119:18; Jeremiah 32:11, 14). In the New Testament the usual word is anoigo (of opening of mouth, eyes, heavens, doors, etc.). A peculiar word, trachelizomai (literally, to have the neck bent back, to be laid bare), is used for "laid open" before God in Hebrews 4:13.

Open Place

Open Place - (1) The "open place" of Genesis 38:14 the King James Version, in which Tamar sat, has come from a misunderstanding of the Hebrew, the translators having taken bephethach `enayim to mean "in an opening publicly," instead of "in an opening (i.e. a gate) of Enaim" (compare Proverbs 1:21 in the Hebrew). The Revised Version (British and American) has corrected; see ENAIM. (2) In 1 Kings 22:10 parallel 2 Chronicles 18:9 the Revised Version (British and American) relates that Ahab and Jehoshaphat sat "each on his throne, arrayed in their robes, in an open place (margin "Hebrew: a threshing-floor," the King James Version "a void place") at the entrance of the gate of Samaria." The Hebrew here is awkward, and neither the Septuagint nor the Syriac seems to have read the present text in 1 Kings 22:10, the former having "in arms, at the gate of Samaria," and the latter "in many-colored garments." Consequently various attempts have been made to emend the text, of which the simplest is the omission of beghoren, "in an open place." If, however, the text is right--as is not impossible--the open place is a threshing-floor close to the gate. See the commentaries.

Burton Scott Easton

Operation

Operation - op-er-a'-shun (ma`ashe, "work"; energeia, energema, "energy"): Twice used in the Old Testament of God's creative work (Psalms 28:4-5; Isaiah 5:12). The Holy Spirit's inworking and power are manifest in the bestowal of spiritual gifts on individuals and on the church (1 Corinthians 12:6 the King James Version), and in the resurrection of Jesus Christ, through which energy or operation of God those dead in sins are, through faith, raised to newness of life (Colossians 2:12 the King James Version).

Ophel

Ophel - o'-fel (ha-`ophel (2 Chronicles 27:3; 33:14; Nehemiah 3:26 f; Nehemiah 11:21; and without article, Isaiah 32:14 and Micah 4:8; also 2 Kings 5:24)):

1. Meaning of Name: There has been considerable divergence of opinion with regard to the meaning of this name. Thus, in all the references given above with the article, the Revised Version (British and American) has simply "Ophel," but the King James Version adds in margin "the tower"; in Isaiah 32:14, "the hill" with margin "Ophel," but the King James Version "the forts," margin "clifts"; Micah 4:8, "the hill," margin "Hebrew: Ophel," but the King James Version "the stronghold"; 2 Kings 5:24, "the hill," margin "Hebrew: Ophel," but the King James Version "the tower," margin "secret place." It is true that the other occurrences of the word in 1 Samuel 5:9, 12; 6:5 f, where it is translated "tumors," and Habakkuk 2:4, where a verbal form is translated "puffed up," seem to imply that one meaning assigned to the root may be that of "swelling." Recently Dr. Burney (PEF, January, 1911) has produced strong arguments in favor of Ophel, when used as the name of a locality, meaning "fortress."

2. Three Ophels: Three places are known to have received this name: (1) A certain place on the east hill of Jerusalem, South of the temple; to this all the passages quoted above--except one--refer. (2) The "Ophel," translated "hill," situated apparently in Samaria (compare 2 Kings 5:3), where Gehazi took his ill-gotten presents from the hands of the servants of Naaman the Syrian. The translation "tower" would suit the sense at least as well. It was some point probably in the wall of Samaria, perhaps the citadel itself. (3) The third reference is not Biblical, but on the Moabite Stone, an inscription of Mesha, king of Moab, contemporary with Omri. He says: "I built Q-R-CH-H (? Karhah), the wall of ye`arim, and the wall of `Ophel and I built its gates and I built its towers." In comparing the references to (1) and (3), it is evident that if Ophel means a "hill," it certainly was a fortified hill, and it seems highly probable that it meant some "artificial swelling in a fortification, e.g. a bulging or rounded keep or enceinte" (Burney, loc. cit.). Isaiah 32:14 reads, "The palace shall be forsaken; the populous city shall be deserted; the hill (Ophel) and the watch-tower shall be for dens for ever." Here we have palace, city and watch-tower, all the handiwork of the builder. Does it not seem probable that the Ophel belongs to the same category?

3. The Ophel of Jerusalem: The situation of the Ophel of Jerusalem is very definitely described. It was clearly, from the references (Nehemiah 3:26-27; 2 Chronicles 27:3; 33:14), on the east hill South of the temple. Josephus states (Josephus, Jewish Wars, V, iv, 2) that the eastern wall of the city ran from Siloam "and reaches as far as a certain place which they called Ophlas when it was joined to the eastern cloister of the temple." In BJ, V, vi, 1, it states that "John held the temple and the parts thereto adjoining, for a great way, as also `Ophla,' and the Valley called the `Valley of the Cedron.' " It is noticeable that this is not identical with the "Acra" and "Lower City" which was held by Simon. There is not the slightest ground for applying the name Ophel, as has been so commonly done, to the whole southeastern hill. In the days of Josephus, it was a part of the hill immediately South of the temple walls, but the Old Testament references suit a locality nearer the middle of the southeastern hill. In the article ZION (which see) it is pointed out that that name does not occur (except in reference to the Jebusite city) in the works of the Chronicler, but that "the Ophel," which occurs almost alone in these works, is apparently used for it. Micah 4:8 margin seems to confirm this view: "O tower of the flock, the Ophel of the daughter of Zion." Here the "tower of the flock" may well refer to the shepherd David's stronghold, and the second name appears to be a synonym for the same place.

Ophel then was probably the fortified site which in earlier days had been known as "Zion" or "the City of David." King Jotham "built much" "on the wall of Ophel" (2 Chronicles 27:3). King Manasseh "built an outer wall to the city of David, on the west side of Gihon, in the valley, even to the entrance at the fish gate; and he compassed Ophel about with it, and raised it up to a very great height" (2 Chronicles 33:14). It was clearly a fortified place of great importance, and its situation must have been so near that of the ancient "Zion" that scarcely any other theory is possible except that it occupied the site of that ancient fortress.

E. W. G. Masterman

Ophir

Ophir - o'-fer, o'-fir ('owphiyr (Genesis 10:29), 'owphir (1 Kings 10:11), 'ophir):

1. Scriptural References: The 11th in order of the sons of Joktan (Genesis 10:29 = 1 Chronicles 1:23). There is a clear reference also to a tribe Ophir (Genesis 10:30). Ophir is the name of a land or city somewhere to the South or Southeast of Palestine for which Solomon's ships along with Phoenician vessels set out from Ezion-geber at the head of the Gulf of Aqabah, returning with great stores of gold, precious stones and "almug"-wood (1 Kings 9:28; 10:11; 2 Chronicles 9:10; 1 Kings 22:48; 2 Chronicles 8:18). We get a fuller list of the wares and also the time taken by the voyage if we assume that the same vessels are referred to in 1 Kings 10:22, "Once every three years came the navy of Tarshish, bringing gold, and silver, ivory, and apes, and peacocks." The other products may not have been native to the land of Ophir, but it is certain that the gold at least was produced there. This gold was proverbial for its purity, as is witnessed by many references in the Old Testament (Psalms 45:9; Job 28:16; Isaiah 13:12; 1 Chronicles 29:4), and, in Job 22:24, Ophir is used for fine gold itself. In addition to these notices of Ophir, it is urged that the name. occurs also in two passages under the form "Uphaz" (Jeremiah 10:9; Daniel 10:5).

2. Geographical Position: At all times the geographical position of Ophir has been a subject of dispute, the claims of three different regions being principally advanced, namely (1) India and the Far East, (2) Africa, (3) Arabia.

(1) India and the Far East. All the wares mentioned are more or less appropriate to India, even including the fuller list of 1 Kings 10:22. "Almug"-wood is conjectured to be the Indian sandal-wood. Another argument is based on the resemblance between the Septuagint form of the word (Sophera) and the Coptic name for India (Sophir). A closer identification is sought with Abhira, a people dwelling at the mouths of the Indus. Supara, an ancient city on the west coast of India near the modern Goa, is also suggested. Again, according to Wildman, the name denotes a vague extension eastward, perhaps as far as China.

(2) Africa. This country is the greatest gold-producing region of the three. Sofala, a seaport near Mozambique on the east coast of Africa, has been advanced as the site of Ophir, both on linguistic grounds and from the nature of its products, for there all the articles of 1 Kings 10:22 could be procured. But Gesenius shows that Sofala is merely the Arabic form of the Hebrew shephelah. Interest in this region as the land of Ophir was renewed, however, by Mauch's discovery at Zimbabye of great ruins and signs of old Phoenician civilization and worked-out gold mines. According to Bruce (I, 440), a voyage from Sofala to Ezion-geber would have occupied quite three years owing to the monsoons.

(3) Arabia. The claim of Southeastern Arabia as the land of Ophir has on the whole more to support it than that of India or of Africa. The Ophir of Genesis 10:29 beyond doubt belonged to this region, and the search for Ophir in more distant lands can be made only on the precarious assumption that the Ophir of Ki is not the same as the Ophir of Gen. Of the various products mentioned, the only one which from the Old Testament notices can be regarded as clearly native to Ophir is the gold, and according to Pliny and Strabo the region of Southeastern Arabia bordering on the Persian Gulf was a famous gold-producing country. The other wares were not necessarily produced in Ophir, but were probably brought there from more distant lands, and thence conveyed by Solomon's merchantmen to Ezion-geber. If the duration of the voyage (3 years) be used as evidence, it favors this location of Ophir as much as that on the east coast of Africa. It seems therefore the least assailable view that Ophir was a district on the Persian Gulf in Southeastern Arabia and served in old time as an emporium of trade between the East and West.

A. S. Fulton

Ophni

Ophni - of'-ni (ha-`ophni; Aphne): A place in the territory of Benjamin (Joshua 18:24). The modern Jifneh, in a fine vale West of the road to Nablus and 2 1/2 miles Northwest of Bethel, might suit as to position; but the change in the initial letter from `ain to jim is not easy. This is the Gophna of the rabbis (compare Josephus, Jewish Wars,III , iii, 5).

Ophrah

Ophrah - of'-ra (`ophrah; Codex Vaticanus Aphra; Codex Alexandrinus Iephratha, etc.):

(1) A town in the territory allotted to Benjamin named between Parah and Chephar-ammoni (Joshua 18:23). It is mentioned again in 1 Samuel 13:17. The Philistines who were encamped at Michmash sent out marauding bands, one of which went westward, another eastward, down "the valley of Zeboim toward the wilderness"; the third "turned unto the way that leadeth to Ophrah, unto the land of Shual." This must have been northward, as Saul commanded the passage to the South. Eusebius, Onomasticon places it 5 Roman miles East of Bethel. A site which comes near to fulfilling these conditions is eT-Taiyebeh, which stands on a conical hill some 5 miles Northeast of Beitin. This is possibly identical with "Ephron" (2 Chronicles 13:19), and "Ephraim" (John 1:1; 11:54).

(2) A city in the tribal lot of Manasseh West of Jordan. It is mentioned only in connection with Gideon, whose native place it was, and with his son Abimelech (Judges 6:11, etc.). It was, indeed, family property, belonging to Joash the Abiezrite, the father of Gideon. It was apparently not far from the plain of Esdraelon (Judges 6:33 f), so that Gideon and his kinsmen smarted under the near presence of the oppressing Midianites. Manasseh, of course, as bordering on the southern edge of the plain, was in close touch with the invaders. At Ophrah, Gideon reared his altar to Yahweh, and made thorough cleansing of the instruments of idolatry. After his great victory, he set up here the golden ephod made from the spoils of the enemy, which proved a snare to himself and to his house (Judges 8:27). Here he was finally laid to rest. It was at Ophrah that Abimelech, aspiring to the kingdom, put to death upon one stone three score and ten of his brethren, as possible rivals, Jotham alone escaping alive (Judges 9:5). Apparently the mother of Abimelech belonged to Shechem; this established a relationship with that town, his connection with which does not therefore mean that Ophrah was near it.

No quite satisfactory identification has yet been suggested. Conder (PEFS, 1876, 1971) quotes the Samaritan Chronicle as identifying Ferata, which is 6 miles West of Nablus, with an ancient Ophra, "and the one that suggests itself as most probably identical is Ophrah of the Abiezerite." But this seems too far to the South.

(3) A man of the tribe of Judah, son of Meonothai (1 Chronicles 4:14).

W. Ewing

Opinion

Opinion - o-pin'-yun (dea`, ce`ippim): "Opinion" occurs only 5 times, thrice in Job (32:6,10,17) as the translation of dea`, "knowledge," "opinion" (in the address of Elihu), and once of ce`ippim, from ca`aph, "to divide or branch out," hence, division or party, unsettled opinion (in the memorable appeal of Elijah, "How long halt ye between two opinions?" 1 Kings 18:21, the American Standard Revised Version "How long go ye limping between the two sides?"). In Ecclesiastes 3:22, we have, "For many are deceived by their own vain opinion" (hupolepsis, "a taking up," "a hasty judgment"), the Revised Version (British and American) The conceit of many hath led them astray.

W. L. Walker

Opobalsamum

Opobalsamum - op-o-bal'-sa-mum: the Revised Version margin in Exodus 30:34.

See STACTE.

Oppression

Oppression - o-presh'-un: Used in the King James Version to translate a variety of Hebrew words, all of which, however, agree in the general sense of wrong done by violence to others. There are a few cases where the reference is to the oppression of Israel by foreigners, as by their Egyptian masters (Exodus 3:9; Deuteronomy 26:7), or by Syria (2 Kings 13:4), or by an unmentioned nation (Isaiah 30:20 King James Version, margin). In all these cases the Hebrew original is lachats. But in the vast number of cases the reference is to social oppression of one kind or another within Israel's own body. It is frequently theme of psalmist and prophet and wise man. The poor and weak must have suffered greatly at the hands of the stronger and more fortunate. The word lachats, various forms of the root `ashaq, and other words are used by the writers as they express their sorrow and indignation over the wrongs of their afflicted brethren. In his own sorrow, Job remembers the suffering of the oppressed (Job 35:9; 36:15); it is a frequent subject of song in the Psalms (Psalms 12:5; 42:9; 43:2; 44:24; 55:3; 119:134); the preacher observes and reflects upon its prevalence (Ecclesiastes 4:1; 5:8; 7:7 the King James Version); the prophets Amos (Ecclesiastes 3:9), Isaiah (Isaiah 5:7; 59:13), Jeremiah (Jeremiah 6:6; 22:17) and Ezekiel (22:7,29) thundered against it. It was exercised toward strangers and also toward the Israelites themselves, and was never wholly overcome. In James 2:6, "oppress" is the rendering of katadunasteuo, "to exercise harsh control over one," "to use one's power against one."

William Joseph Mcglothlin

Or

Or - or: The word is used once for either (1 Samuel 26:10), and is still in poetic use in this sense; as in, "Without or wave or wind" (Coleridge); "Or the bakke or some bone he breketh in his dzouthe" (Piers Plowman (B), VII, 93; compare Merchant of Venice,III , ii, 65). It is also used with "ever" for before (Psalms 90:2; Ecclesiasticus 18:19), which the American Standard Revised Version substitutes in Ecclesiastes 12:6 (compare Ecclesiastes 12:1-2); Song of Solomon 6:12; Daniel 6:24.

Oracle

Oracle - or'-a-k'-l: (1) A divine utterance delivered to man, usually in answer to a request for guidance. So in 2 Samuel 16:23 for dabhar ("word," as in the Revised Version margin). The use in this passage seems to indicate that at an early period oracular utterances were sought from Yahweh by the Israelites, but the practice certainly fell into disuse at the rise of prophecy, and there are no illustrations of the means employed (1 Samuel 14:18-19, 36-42, etc., belong rather to DIVINATION (which see)). In. the Revised Version margin of such passages as Isaiah 13:1, "oracle" is used in the titles of certain special prophecies as a substitute for BURDEN (which see) (massa'), with considerable advantage (especially in Lamentations 2:14). (2) In heathen temples "oracle" was used for the chamber in which the utterances were delivered (naturally a most sacred part of the structure). This usage, coupled with a mistake in Hebrew philology (connecting debhir, "hinder part," with dibber, "speak"), caused English Versions of the Bible to give the title "oracle" to the Most Holy Place of the Temple, in 1 Kings 6:5, etc., following the example of Aquila, Symmachus and the Vulgate (Jerome's Latin Bible, 390-405 A.D.) But the title is very unfortunate, as the Most Holy Place had nothing to do with the delivery of oracles, and the Revised Version (British and American) should have corrected (compare Psalms 28:2 margin). (3) In the New Testament English Versions of the Bible employs "oracle" as the translation of logion, "saying," in four places. In all, divine utterances are meant, specialized in Acts 7:38 as the Mosaic Law ("living oracles" = "commandments enforced by the living God"), in Romans 3:2 as the Old Testament in general, and in Hebrews 5:12 as the revelations of Christianity (Hebrews 6:2-3). In 1 Peter 4:11 the meaning is debated, but probably the command is addressed to those favored by a supernatural "gift of speech." Such men must keep their own personality in the background, adding nothing of their own to the inspired message as it comes to them.

Burton Scott Easton

Oracles, Sibylline

Oracles, Sibylline - sib'-i-lin, -lin.

See APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE, sec. V.

Orator; Ortion

Orator; Ortion - or'-a-ter, o-ra'-shun: The word "orator" occurs twice: (1) As the King James Version rendering of lachash; only Isaiah 3:3, "the eloquent orator," the King James Version margin "skilful of speech," where the Revised Version (British and American) rightly substitutes "the skillful enchanter." The word lachash is probably a mimetic word meaning "a hiss," "a whisper" and is used in the sense of "incantation" "charm." Hence, nebhon lachash means "skillful in incantation," "expert in magic." See DIVINATION; ENCHANTMENT. (2) As the rendering of rhetor, the title applied to Tertullus, who appeared as the advocate of the Jewish accusers of Paul before Felix (Acts 24:1). The proceedings, as was generally the case in the provincial Roman courts, would probably be conducted in Latin, and under Roman modes of procedure, in which the parties would not be well versed; hence, the need of a professional advocate. Rhetor is here the equivalent of the older Greek sunegoros, "the prosecuting counsel," as opposed to the sundikos, "the defendant's advocate."

Oration occurs only in Acts 12:21: "Herod .... made an oration unto them" (edemegorei pros autous). The verb demegoreo, "to speak in an assembly" (from demos, "people," agoreuo, "to harangue"), is often found in classical Greek, generally in a bad sense (Latin concionari); here only in the New Testament.

D. Miall Edwards

Orchard

Orchard - or'-cherd: (1) pardec, from Old Persian, "a walled-in enclosure"; paradeisos, a word in classical Greek applied to the garden of Babylon (Diodorus Siculus xi.10) and to a game park (Xenophon, Anab. i.2, 7). See Nehemiah 2:8, "forest," margin "park"; Song of Solomon 4:13, "orchard," margin "paradise" (of pomegranates); Ecclesiastes 2:5, "parks," the King James Version "orchards"; see PARADISE. (2) kepos, "garden" or "orchard": "a white thorn in an orchard" (Baruch 6:71).

Ordain; Ordination

Ordain; Ordination - or-dan', or-di-na-shun (Latin ordinare, "to set in order" "to arrange"; in post-Augustan Latin "to appoint to office"; from ordo, gen. ordinis, "order," "arrangement"): In the King James Version the verb "to ordain" renders as many as 35 different words (11 Hebrew words in the Old Testament, 21 Greek words in Apocrypha and the New Testament, and 3 Latin words in Apocrypha). This is due to the fact that the English word has many shades of meaning (especially as used in the time the King James Version was made), of which the following are the chief: (1) To set in order, arrange, prepare:

"All things that we ordained festival,

Turn from their office to black funeral."

--Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet, IV, v, 84.

This meaning is now obsolete. It is found in the King James Version of Psalms 132:17; Isaiah 30:33; Hebrews 9:6 (in each of which cases the Revised Version (British and American) or margin substitutes "prepare"); 1 Chronicles 17:9 (the Revised Version (British and American) "appoint"); Psalms 7:13 (the Revised Version (British and American) "maketh"); Habakkuk 1:12 (also the Revised Version (British and American)). (2) To establish, institute, bring into being: "When first this order (i.e. the Garter) was ordained, my Lord" (Shakespeare). So in 1 Kings 12:32, "Jeroboam ordained a feast in the 1 Kings 8:11-66th month" (1 Kings 12:33); Numbers 28:6; Psalms 8:2-3; Isaiah 26:12; 2 Esdras 6:49 the King James Version (the Revised Version (British and American) "preserve"); Sirach 7:15; Galatians 3:19. (3) To decree, give orders, prescribe:

"And doth the power that man adores

Ordain their doom ?" --Byron.

So Esther 9:27, "The Jews ordained .... that they would keep these two days according to the writing thereof"; 1 Esdras 6:34; 2 Esdras 7:17; 8:14 the King James Version; Tobit 1:6; 8:7 the King James Version (the Revised Version (British and American) "command"); Additions to Esther 14:9; 1 Maccabees 4:59; 7:49; Acts 16:4; Romans 7:10 the King James Version; 1 Corinthians 2:7; 7:17; 9:14; Ephesians 2:10 the King James Version. (4) To set apart for an office or duty, appoint, destine: "Being ordained his special governor" (Shakespeare). Frequent in EV. When the King James Version has "ordain" in this sense, the Revised Version (British and American) generally substitutes "appoint"; e.g. "He (Jesus) appointed (the King James Version "ordained") twelve, that they might be with him" (Mark 3:14). Song of Solomon 2 Ch 11:15; Jeremiah 1:5; Daniel 2:24; 1 Esdras 8:49; 1 Maccabees 3:55; 10:20; John 15:16; Acts 14:23; 1 Timothy 2:7; Titus 1:5; Hebrews 5:1; 8:3. The Revised Version (British and American) substitutes "formedst" in Wisdom of Solomon 9:2, "recorded" in Sirach 48:10, "become" in Acts 1:22, "written of" (margin "set forth") in Jude 1:4, but retains "ordain" in the sense of "appoint," "set apart," in 2 Kings 23:5; 1 Chronicles 9:22; 1 Esdras 8:23; Additions to Esther 13:6; Acts 10:42; 13:48; 17:31; Romans 13:1. (5) To appoint ceremonially to the ministerial or priestly office, to confer holy orders on. This later technical or ecclesiastical sense is never found in English Versions of the Bible. The nearest approach is (4) above, but the idea of formal or ceremonial setting-apart to office (prominent in its modern usage) is never implied in the word.

Ordination: The act of arranging in regular order, especially the act of investing with ministerial or sacerdotal rank (ordo), the setting-apart for an office in the Christian ministry. The word does not occur in English Version of the Bible. The New Testament throws but little light on the origin of the later ecclesiastical rite of ordination. The 12 disciples were not set apart by any formal act on the part of Jesus. In Mark 3:14; John 15:16, the King James Version rendering "ordain" is, in view of its modern usage, misleading; nothing more is implied than an appointment or election. In John 20:21-23, we have indeed a symbolic act of consecration ("He breathed on them"), but "the act is described as one and not repeated. The gift was once for all, not to individuals but to the abiding body" (Westcott, at the place). In the Apostolic age there is no trace of the doctrine of an outward rite conferring inward grace, though we have instances of the formal appointment or recognition of those who had already given proof of their spiritual qualification. (1) The Seven were chosen by the brethren as men already "full of the Spirit and of wisdom," and were then "appointed" by the Twelve, who prayed and laid their hands upon them (Acts 6:1-6). (2) The call of Barnabas and Saul came direct from God (Acts 13:2, "the work whereunto I have called them"; Acts 13:4, they were "sent forth by the Holy Spirit"). Yet certain prophets and teachers were instructed by the Holy Spirit to "separate" them (i.e. publicly) for their work, which they did by fasting and praying and laying on of hands (Acts 13:3). But it was utterly foreign to Paul's point of view to regard the church's act as constituting him an apostle (compare Galatians 1:1). (3) Barnabas and Paul are said to have "ordained," the Revised Version (British and American) "appointed" (cheirotonesantes, "elect," "appoint," without indicating the particular mode of appointment), elders or presbyters in every city with prayers and fasting (Acts 14:23). So Titus was instructed by Paul to "appoint elders in every city" in Crete (Titus 1:5). (4) The gift of Timothy for evangelistic work seems to have been formally recognized in two ways: (a) by the laying on of the hands of the presbytery (1 Timothy 4:14), (b) by the laying on of the hands of Paul himself (2 Timothy 1:6). The words "Lay hands hastily on no man" (1 Timothy 5:22) do not refer to an act of ordination, but probably to the restoration of the penitent. The reference in Hebrews 6:2 is not exclusively to ordination, but to all occasions of laying on of hands (see HANDS, IMPOSITION OF). From the few instances mentioned above (the only ones found in the New Testament), we infer that it was regarded as advisable that persons holding high office in the church should be publicly recognized in some way, as by laying on of hands, fasting, and public prayer. But no great emphasis was laid on this rite, hence, "it can hardly be likely that any essential principle was held to be involved in it" (Hort, The Christian Ecclesia, 216). It was regarded as an outward act of approval, a symbolic offering of intercessory prayer, and an emblem of the solidarity of the Christian community, rather than an indispensable channel of grace for the work of the ministry. (For the later ecclesiastical doctrine and rite see Edwin Hatch's valuable article on "Ordination" in the Dictionary of Christian Antiquity)

D. Miall Edwards

Order

Order - or'-der (`arakh, "to arrange"; tassein (> diatassein, taxis, tagma)): "Order" in Biblical phrases may indicate (1) arrangement in rows, (2) sequence in time, (3) classification and organization, (4) likeness or manner, (5) regulation, direction or command, or (6) the declaring of a will. In many passages it is difficult if not impossible to determine from the English text alone in which of these senses the word is used.

1. Arrangement in Rows: The fundamental idea suggested by the Hebrew, Greek and English words is that of arrangement in rows. Thus "order" is used in the Bible of arranging wood for an altar (Leviticus 1:7; 1 Kings 18:33; compare Hebrew Genesis 22:9; Isaiah 30:33); of laying out flax-stalks for drying (Joshua 2:6); of preparing offerings (Leviticus 1:8, 12; compare Leviticus 6:5; Judges 6:26); of arranging lamps (Exodus 27:21; 39:37; Leviticus 24:3-4; compare Psalms 132:17); of placing the shewbread on the table (Exodus 40:4, 23; Leviticus 6:12; 24:8; 2 Chronicles 13:11); of drawing up the battle array (1 Chronicles 12:38 (Hebrews 39, `adhar)); and of arranging weapons in order for battle (Jeremiah 46:3, the American Standard Revised Version "prepare"). As a verb "to order" in the older versions usually has the obsolete sense "to arrange" and not the more usual English meanings, "to demand" or "to direct." Thus: "In the tent of meeting shall Aaron order it" (Leviticus 24:4, the American Standard Revised Version "keep in order"); "Order ye the buckler and shield" (Jeremiah 46:3; compare Psalms 119:133; Job 23:4, the American Standard Revised Version "set in order"; Judith 2:16; Wisdom of Solomon 8:1; 15:1; Ecclesiastes 2:6). The Hebrew pa`am (literally, "hoof-beat," "occurrence," "repetition") in the plural conveys the idea of an architectural plan (Ezekiel 41:6). Another word, shalabh, literally, "to join," in connection with the tabernacle, has in some versions been translated as including the idea of orderly arrangement (Exodus 26:17). The word "order" standing by itself may mean orderly or proper arrangement (1 Esdras 1:10; Wisdom of Solomon 7:29; 1 Maccabees 6:40; Colossians 2:5). Akin to the idea of arranging things in a row is that of arranging words (Job 33:5; 37:19; Psalms 5:3), of recounting things in order (Isaiah 44:7; Luke 1:1 the King James Version (diatassein); Luke 1:3; Acts 11:4 (kathexes)), of setting forth a legal case (Job 23:4; 13:18; compare Psalms 50:21). From the idea of arranging in order for the purpose of comparison the Hebrew `arakh acquires the meaning "to compare" (Isaiah 40:18; Psalms 89:7). This is clearly the meaning of 'en `arokh 'elekha (Psalms 40:5 (Hebrews 6:1-20)), where "They cannot be set in order unto thee" must be interpreted to mean "There is nothing that can be compared unto thee."

2. Sequence in Time: As the fundamental meaning of `arakh is arrangement in space, that of cadhar is order or sequence in time. In later Hebrew cedher was used in the sense of "program." In Job 10:22 lo' cedharim, absence of regularity, in the description of the uncertain period that follows death probably means "confusion in time." (The Septuagint (pheggos) suggests, in the place of cedharim, a word for "light," possibly tsohorayim.) In the New Testament we find "order" used of time in connection with the resurrection of the dead (1 Corinthians 15:23 (tagma)) and of a succession of places visited (Acts 18:23 (kathexes)). The phrase "in order unto" (Psalms 119:38) expresses causal sequence and hence, purpose.

3. Classification and Organization: The idea of classification is present in the Hebrew taqan, translated "set in order," with reference to a collection of proverbs (Ecclesiastes 12:9). The same stem is used with reference to the arranging of singers before the altar (Hebrew Ecclesiasticus 47:9), The classification of priests according to their service is spoken of as "ordering" (1 Chronicles 24:3, 19, Hebrew paqadh). Next to the high priests ranked priests of the second order (mishneh, 2 Kings 23:4; compare 2 Kings 25:18 parallel Jeremiah 52:24). The related concept of organization is present where the Hebrew kun (literally, "to establish".) is translated "order" (Isaiah 9:7 the King James Version, "to establish" the American Standard Revised Version; Psalms 119:133; 2 Chronicles 29:35; compare 1 Maccabees 16:14). A similar use of the term "order" is found in the New Testament in connection with the organization of the affairs of the church (1 Corinthians 16:1 (diatassein); Titus 1:5 (epidiorthoo); 1 Corinthians 11:34).

4. Likeness or Manner: "Order," in the sense of likeness or manner, is used in the phrase "after the order of Melchisedek" to translate the Hebrew `al dibherath, or rather the archaic form `al dibherathi (Psalms 110:4), which in other passages is translated "because of" (compare Ecclesiastes 3:18; 7:14; 8:2). This well-known phrase is rendered in Septuagint kata ten taxin, a translation adopted in Hebrews 5:6, 10; 6:20; 11, 17, where the passage from Psalm is made the basis of an extended argument, in the course of which "order" is taken in the sense of "likeness" (Hebrews 7:16).

5. Regulation, Direction, Command: In the sense of regulation, we find "order" as a translation of mishpaT (which is literally, "the ruling of a shopheT," whether as a judicial decree or legislative act) in connection with the conduct of priests (1 Chronicles 6:32 (Hebrews 17); 2 Chronicles 30:16; compare Luke 1:8; 1 Esdras 1:6), and with reference to the Nazirite regulations in the story of Samson (Judges 13:12, the Revised Version (British and American) "manner"), church services (1 Corinthians 14:40) and, in the older English VSS, with reference to other ritual matters (1 Chronicles 15:13; 23:31; 2 Chronicles 8:14, the American Standard Revised Version "ordinance"). The phrase `al yadh, literally, "according to the hand of," translated in Ezra 3:10; 1 Chronicles 25:1-311:2b,3,6 twice in various ways, means "under the direction of," or "under the order of," as translated in the last instance. The modern sense of "command" is suggested here and in several other instances (1 Esdras 8:10; 1 Maccabees 9:55). He "that ordereth his conversation aright" (sam derekh, Psalms 50:23) is probably one who chooses the right path and directs his steps along it. "Who shall order the battle?" (1 Kings 20:14) is corrected in the American Standard Revised Version: "Who shall begin the battle?" (compare 2 Chronicles 13:3, Hebrew 'acar, literally, "to bind," hence, "to join" or "begin"; compare proelium committere).

6. Declaring of Last Will: The phrase "to set one's house in order" (Isaiah 38:1 parallel 2 Kings 20:1; 2 Samuel 17:23), used of Hezekiah and Ahithophel, in contemplation of death, means to give final instructions to one's household or to make one's will. The Hebrew tsawah used in this phrase is the stem found in the later Hebrew tsawwa'ah, "a verbal will" (Babha' Bathra' 147a, 151b; BDB). Great moral weight was attached in Biblical times to the charges laid upon a household by a deceased father or remoter ancestor, not only as to the disposition of property but also as to personal conduct. (Compare the case of the Rechabites, where the same Hebrew expression is used, tsiwwah `alenu, Jeremiah 35:6.)

Nathan Isaacs

Ordinance

Ordinance - or'-di-nans:

1. Old Testament Use: This word generally represents chuqqah, something prescribed, enactment, usually with reference to matters of ritual. In the King James Version the same word is frequently translated by "statute" or "statutes," which is also the rendering of a similar Hebrew word, namely, choq. the Revised Version (British and American) generally retains "ordinance," but sometimes substitutes "statute" (e.g. Exodus 18:20; Psalms 99:7). In one instance the Revised Version (British and American) renders "set portion" (Ezekiel 45:14). The word generally has a religious or ceremonial significance. It is used for instance in connection with the Passover (Exodus 12:43; Numbers 9:14). According to Exodus 12:14, the Passover was "an ordinance for ever," i.e. a permanent institution. In the plural the word is often employed, along with such terms as commandments, laws, etc., with reference to the different prescriptions of the Deuteronomic and Priestly codes (Deuteronomy 6:1-2; Leviticus 18:4).

In 11 passages (Exodus 15:25; Joshua 24:25; 1 Samuel 30:25; 2 Kings 17:34, 37; 2 Chronicles 33:8; 35:13; Psalms 119:91; Isaiah 58:2 twice; Ezekiel 11:20) "ordinance" is the rendering of mishpaT, judgment, decision or sentence by a judge or ruler. In the Book of the Covenant (Exodus 20:22 through 23:33) the term "judgments" denotes civil, as contrasted with ritual, enactments. In 2 Kings 17:34 the King James Version employs "manners" and "ordinances" as renderings of this word. In 3 passages (Leviticus 18:30; 22:9; Malachi 3:14) "ordinance" is the translation of mishmereth, "charge," which the Revised Version (British and American) restores. In one instance (Nehemiah 10:32) ordinance renders mitswah, "commandment," while in Ezra 3:10 the King James Version the phrase "after the ordinance of David" represents a Hebrew phrase which literally means "upon the hands of David," i.e. under the guidance or direction of David.

2. New Testament Use: In the New Testament, "ordinance" renders different Greek words, namely, (1) dikaioma, in Luke 1:6 and Hebrews 9:1, 10. The word means literally, "anything declared right"; but in these passages ceremonial and religious regulation; (2) dogma, in Ephesians 2:15; Colossians 2:14. In the New Testament this word always means a decree or edict (Acts 17:7); (3) paradosis, in 1 Corinthians 11:2 the King James Version, the Revised Version (British and American) substitutes "traditions"; (4) ktisis, "setting up," "institution" in 1 Peter 2:13. The term is used exclusively of the action of God. Peter implies that institutions, apparently human, such as the family and the state, are of divine origin. The same doctrine is found in Romans 13:1.

T. Lewis

Ordinances of Heaven

Ordinances of Heaven - See ASTRONOMY, sec. I, 1.

Ordination

Ordination - or-di-na'-shun.

See ORDAIN, ORDINATION.

Oreb

Oreb - In 2 Esdras 2:33 the King James Version for Mt. HOREB (which see; so the Revised Version (British and American)).

Oreb; Zeeb

Oreb; Zeeb - o'-reb, ze'-eb, zeb (`orebh, "raven," especially "crow"), and (ze'ebh, "wolf") (Judges 7:25; 8:3; Psalms 83:11, and Isaiah 10:26 (Oreb only)): Two Midianite chieftains captured and beheaded by the Ephraimites, who brought their heads to Gideon.

1. Meaning of Names: As to the meaning of the two names, both words are found in Arabic. Robertson Smith, Kinship, etc. (190 ff, 218 ff), says that the use of the names of animals as names of persons is a relic of totemism. But Noldeke (ZDMG, XL, 160 ff) and others hold that such a use shows a desire that those so named should be as disagreeable to their enemies as the plant or animal which the name denoted. Some again (e.g. Stade, Geschichte, 189 ff) maintain that the two names here are borrowed from localities and not vice versa, as Judges 7:25 implies. If so, we must take the names to be originally two places, apparently in Ephraim, for the words "beyond Jordan" in Judges 7:25 contradict Judges 8:4, where it is said that Gideon came to the Jordan and passed over. Moore (Jgs, 214) suggests that the two localities were near the junction with the Jordan of the stream that comes from Wady Far`ah. The construction of the Hebrew allows of a translation "the rock (called) Oreb," and "the winepress (called) Zeeb."

2. The Battle of Oreb: The account of a battle here is corroborated by Isaiah 10:26, a verse which mentions the "rock of Oreb," and suggests that the great defeat of the Midianites took place there (compare Isaiah 9:4). The passage in Isaiah 10:24-26 is prose, however, and is said to be late editing (see G.H. Box, Isa, 65). In Psalms 83:11 (Hebrews 12:1-29) there is a prayer that God would make the "nobles" among the Psalmist's enemies as Oreb and Zeeb.

David Francis Roberts

Oren

Oren - o'-ren ('oren; Aram, Alex. Aran): A son of Jerahmeel, the firstborn of Hezron (1 Chronicles 2:25).

Organ

Organ - or'-gan.

See MUSIC.

Orion

Orion - o-ri'-on: A brilliant constellation dedicated to Nimrod or Merodach.

See ASTRONOMY, sec. II, 11.

Ornament

Ornament - or'-na-ment (`adhi, "adornment"): In common with all the Orientals, the Hebrews were very fond of wearing ornaments, and their tendency to extravagance of this kind often met with stern prophetic rebuke (Isaiah 3:16-24; Ezekiel 13:18-20). On this subject, little is said in the New Testament apart from Jesus' (Luke 7:25; 12:23) and James' (James 2:2) invectives against meretricious estimates of moral character. Yet the employment of attractive attire receives sanction in the divine example of Ezekiel 16:10-14.

Ornaments in general would include finely embroidered or decorated fabrics, such as the priest's dress or the high-priestly attire, and the richly wrought veil, girdle and turban used by the wealthier class. But the term may be limited here to the various rings, bracelets and chains made of precious metals and more or less jeweled (compare Jeremiah 2:32).

These latter, described in detail under their own titles, may be summarized here as finger-rings, particularly prized as seal-rings (Genesis 38:18, 25; Jeremiah 22:24); arm-rings or bracelets (Genesis 24:22; 2 Samuel 1:10); earrings (Genesis 35:4; Exodus 32:2); noserings (Genesis 24:47; Ezekiel 16:12); anklets or ankle-chains (Isaiah 3:16, 18); head-bands or fillets or cauls (referred to in Isaiah 3:18 only), and necklaces or neck-chains (Genesis 41:42; Ezekiel 16:11).

Figurative: The universal devotion to ornament among the Orientals is the occasion for frequent Biblical allusions to the beauty and splendor of fine jewelry and attire. But everywhere, in divine injunctions, the emphasis of value is placed upon the beauty of holiness as an inward grace rather than on the attractions of outward ornament (Job 40:10; Psalms 110:3; Joel 2:13; 1 Timothy 2:9-10; 1 Peter 3:4). In grievous sorrow, all ornament was to be laid aside in token of mourning (Exodus 33:4-6).

Leonard W. Doolan

Ornan

Ornan - or'-nan (1 Chronicles 21:15).

See ARAUNAH.

Orpah

Orpah - or'-pa (`orpah; for meaning see below):A Moabitess, wife of Mahlon, son of Elimelech and Naomi. Unlike her sister Ruth she returned to her own people after escorting Naomi on her way to Judah (Ruth 1:4 ff). Her name is supposed to be derived from the Hebrew word for "neck" (`oreph), and so to mean "stiff-necked" because of her turning-back from following her mother-in-law; others take it to mean "gazelle."

Orphan

Orphan - or'-fan: This word occurs once only in the Old Testament (Lamentations 5:3, where it stands for yathom, elsewhere rendered "fatherless," and in the Septuagint always orphanos); in the Apocrypha it occurs 3 times (2 Esdras 2:20; Tobit 1:8; 2 Maccabees 8:28). There is no clear case where it means the loss of both parents. The Scriptures devote considerable attention to the widow and orphan, and the idea is that the child is fatherless. It is not found in the King James Version of the New Testament; but the Greek word orphanos occurs twice, John 14:18 (the King James Version "comfortless," the Revised Version (British and American) "desolate," margin "orphans") and James 1:27 ("fatherless").

See FATHERLESS.

D. Miall Edwards

Orthosia

Orthosia - or-tho-si'-a (Orthosias; the King James Version Orthosias): The city to which Tryphon fled when he escaped from Dora, where he was besieged by Antiochus Sidetes (1 Maccabees 15:37). According to Pliny (NH, v.17) it lay South of the river Eleutherus, and North of the city of Tripolis. The Peutinger Tables place it 12 Roman miles North of Tripolis and 30 miles South of Antaradus on the Phoenician coast. Porter would place it on the southern bank of Nahr el-Barid.

Osaias

Osaias - o-za'-yas, o-sa'-yas (Osaias; Codex Vaticanus omits): In 1 Esdras 8:48 a corruption of Jeshaiah (compare Ezra 8:19).

Osea

Osea - o-ze'-a, o-se'-a: In 2 Esdras 13:40 = HOSHEA, king of Israel (which see).

Oseas

Oseas - o-ze'-as, o-se'-as: "Osee" in 2 Esdras 1:39; the prophet Hosea.

Osee

Osee - o'-ze, o'-se (Hosee): the King James Version in Romans 9:25; the prophet Hosea (thus the Revised Version (British and American)).

Oshea

Oshea - o-she'-a, o'-she-a (the Revised Version (British and American) "Hoshea" (Numbers 13:8, 16)): The original name of Joshua, the son of Nun, changed by Moses (Numbers 13:16) from Hoshea (hoshea`, "help") to Joshua (yehoshua`, "help of Yahweh").

See JOSHUA.

Osnappar

Osnappar - os-nap'-ar (Ezra 4:10).

See ASHURBANIPAL.

Ospray

Ospray - os'-pra (`ozniyah; haliaetos; Latin Pandion haliaetus): A large hawk preferring a diet of fish. The word is found in the list of abominations only. See Leviticus 11:13; Deuteronomy 14:12. The osprey was quite similar in appearance to some of the smaller eagles, and by some it is thought that the short-toed eagle is intended. But the eagle and the gier-eagle had been specified, and on account of the osprey plunging into water for food and having feet bare to the lower leg-joint and plumage of brighter and more distinctive marking, it seems very probable that it was recognized as a distinctive species, and so named separately. Moreover, the osprey was not numerous as were other hawks and eagles. It was a bird that lived almost wholly on fish, and these were not plentiful in the waters of Palestine. This would tend to make it a marked bird, so no doubt the translation is correct as it stands, as any hawk that lived on fish would have been barred as an article of diet (see Tristram, Natural History of the Bible, 182; also Studers, Birds of North America, p. 16).

Gene Stratton-Porter

Ossifrage

Ossifrage - os'-i-fraj (perec; gups; Let Ossifraga): The great bearded vulture known as the lammer-geier (Leviticus 11:13; Deuteronomy 14:12 the King James Version, the Revised Version (British and American) "gier-eagle"). The Hebrew name perec means "to break." Let oasis, "bone," and frangere, "to break," indicate the most noticeable habit of the bird. It is the largest of the vulture family, being 3 1/2 ft. in length and 10 in sweep. It has a white head, black beard on the chin, and the part of the eye commonly called the "white" in most animals, which is visible in but few birds, in this family is pronounced and of a deep angry red, thus giving the bird a formidable appearance. The back is grayish black, the feathers finely penciled, the shaft being white, the median line tawny. The under parts are tawny white and the feet and talons powerful. It differs from the vulture in that it is not a consistent carrion feeder, but prefers to take prey of the size captured by some of the largest eagles. It took its name from the fact that after smaller vultures and eagles had stripped a carcass to the last shred of muscle, the lammergeier then carried the skeleton aloft and dropped it repeatedly until the marrow from the broken bones could be eaten. It is also very fond of tortoise, the meat of which it secures in the same manner. As this bird frequents Southern Europe, it is thought to be the one that mistook the bald head of Aeschylus, the poet, for a stone and let fall on it the tortoise that caused his death. This bird also attacks living prey of the size of lambs, kids and hares. It is not numerous and does not flock, but pairs live in deep gorges and rocky crevices. It builds an enormous nest, deposits one pinkish or yellowish egg, and the young is black. It requires two years to develop the red eyes, finely penciled plumage and white head of the adult bird. It was included among the abominations because of its diet of carrion.

Gene Stratton-Porter

Ostraca

Ostraca - os'-tra-ka: The word ostracon ("potsherd," Hebrew cheres) occurs in Job 2:8 (Septuagint), kai elaben ostrakon, "and he took him a potsherd." Earthen vessels were in universal use in antiquity (they are twice mentioned in the New Testament: skeue ostrakina (2 Corinthians 4:7; 2 Timothy 2:20)), and the broken fragments of them, which could be picked up almost anywhere, were made to serve various purposes. Upon the smoothest of these pieces of unglazed pottery the poorest might write in ink his memoranda, receipts, letters or texts.

1. Hebrew Ostraca: A fortunate discovery at Samaria (1910), made among the ruins of Ahab's palace, has brought to light 75 Hebrew ostraca inscribed with ink, in the Phoenician character, with accounts and memoranda relating to private matters and dating probably from the time of Ahab. Their historical contribution, aside from the mention of many names of persons and places, is slender, but for ancient Hebrew writing and to a less extent for Hebrew words and forms they are of value, while the fact that in them we possess documents actually penned in Israel in the 9th century BC gives them extraordinary interest. The nature of ostraca tends to their preservation under conditions which would quickly destroy parchment, skin or papyrus, and this discovery in Palestine encourages the hope of further and more significant finds.

2. Greek Ostraca: Greek ostraca in large quantities have been found in Egypt, preserving documents of many kinds, chiefly tax receipts. The texts of some 2,000 of these have been published, principally by Wilcken (Griechische Ostraka, 2 volumes, 1899), and serve to illustrate in unexpected ways the everyday Greek speech of the common people of Egypt through the Ptolemaic, Roman and Byzantine periods. Like the papyri, they help to throw light on New Testament syntax and lexicography, as well as on ancient life in general.

3. New Testament Ostraca: It is said that Cleanthes the Stoic, being too poor to buy papyrus, used to write on ostraca, but no remains of classical literature have been found on the ostraca thus far discovered. In some instances, however, Christian literary texts are preserved upon ostraca. Some years ago Bouriant bought in Upper Egypt 20 ostraca, probably of the 7th century, inscribed with the Greek text of parts of the Gospels. The ostraca are of different sizes, and preserve among others one long continuous passage (Luke 22:40-71), which runs over 10 of the pieces. The ostraca contain from 2 to 9 verses each, and cover Matthew 27:31-32; Mark 5:40-41 (Mark 9:3); Mark 9:17-18, 22; 15:21; Luke 12:13-16; Luke 22:40-71; John 1:1-9, 14-17; John 18:19-25; John 19:15-17. The texts are in 3 different hands, and attest the interest of the poor in the gospel in the century of the Arab conquest. Another late ostracon has a rough drawing labeled "St. Peter the evangelist," perhaps in allusion to the Gospel of Peter.

4. Coptic Ostraca: Coptic ostraca, too, are numerous, especially from the Byzantine period, and of even more interest for Christian history than the Greek. A Sa`idic ostracon preserves the pericope on the woman taken in adultery (John 7:53 through John 8:11), which is otherwise unattested in the Sa`idic New Testament. A Christian hymn to Mary, akin to the canticles of Luke, and some Christian letters have been found. The work of W.E. Crum on the Coptic ostraca is of especial importance. See, further, Deissmann, Light from the Ancient East, 1910; Lyon, Harvard Theol. Review, January, 1911.

Edgar J. Goodspeed

Ostrich

Ostrich - os'-trich (ya`anah; strouthos; Latin Struthio camelus): The largest bird now living. The Hebrew words ya`anah, which means "greediness," and bath ha-ya`anah, "daughter of greediness," are made to refer to the indiscriminate diet of the ostrich, to which bird they apply; and again to the owl, with no applicability. The owl at times has a struggle to swallow whole prey it has taken, but the mere fact that it is a night hunter forever shuts it from the class of greedy and promiscuous feeders. The bodies of owls are proverbially lean like eagles. Neither did the owl frequent several places where older versions of Jer and Isa place it; so the translations are now correctly rendered "ostrich." These birds came into the Bible because of their desert life, the companions they lived among there, and because of their night cries that were guttural, terrifying groans, like the roaring of lions. The birds were brought into many pictures of desolation, because people dreaded their fearful voices. They horned on the trackless deserts that were dreaded by travelers, and when they came feeding on the fringe of the wilderness, they fell into company with vulture, eagle, lion, jackal and adder, and joined their voices with the night hawks and owls. For these reasons no birds were more suitable for drawing strong comparisons from.

1. Physical Peculiarities: They attained a height ranging from 6 to 8 ft., and weighed from 200 to 300 lbs. The head was small with large eyes having powerful vision, and protected by lashes. The neck was long, covered with down, and the windpipe showed, while large bites could be seen to slide down the gullet. The legs were bare, long, and the muscles like steel from the long distances covered in desert travel. The foot was much like the cloven hoof of a beast. The inner toe was 7 inches long, with a clawlike hoof, the outer, smaller with no claw. With its length and strength of leg and the weight of foot it could strike a blow that saved it from attack by beasts smaller than a leopard. The wings were small, the muscles soft and flabby. They would not bear the weight of the bird, but the habit of lifting and beating them proved that this assisted in attaining speed in running (compare Xen. Anab. i.5,2, 3). The body was covered with soft flexible feathers, the wings and tail growing long plumes, for which the bird has been pursued since the beginning of time. These exquisite feathers were first used to decorate the headdress and shields of desert chieftains, then as decorations for royalty, and later for hat and hair ornaments. The badge of the Prince of Wales is three white ostrich plumes. The females are smaller, the colors gray and white, the males a glossy black, the wing and tail plumes white. The ostrich has three physical peculiarities that stagger scientists. It has eyelashes, developed no doubt to protect the eyes from the dust and sand of desert life. On the wings are two plumeless shafts like large porcupine quills. These may be used in resisting attack. It also has a bladder like a mammal, that collects uric acid, the rarest organ ever developed in a feathered creature.

2. Eggs and Care of Young: These birds homed on the deserts of Arabia and at the lower end of the great Salt Sea. Here the ostrich left her eggs on the earth and warmed them in the sand. That they were not hard baked was due to the fact that they were covered for protection during the day and brooded through the cooler nights. The eggs average 3 lbs. weight. They have been used for food in the haunts of the ostrich since the records of history began, and their stout shells for drinking-vessels. It is the custom of natives on finding a nest to take a long stick and draw out an egg. If incubation has advanced enough to spoil the eggs for use, the nest is carefully covered and left; if fresh, they are eaten, one egg being sufficient for a small family. No doubt these were the eggs to which Job referred as being tasteless without salt (Job 6:6). The number of eggs in the nest was due to the fact that the birds were polygamous, one male leading from 2 to 7 females, all of which deposited their eggs in a common nest. When several females wanted to use the nest at the same time, the first one to reach it deposited her egg in it, and the others on the sand close beside. This accounts for the careless habits of the ostrich as to her young. In this communal nest, containing from 2 to 3 dozen eggs, it is impossible for the mother bird to know which of the young is hers. So all of them united in laying the eggs and allowing the father to look after the nest and the young. The bird first appears among the abominations in Leviticus 11:16 the Revised Version (British and American) the King James Version "owl"; Deuteronomy 14:16, the Revised Version (British and American) "little owl," the King James Version "owl." This must have referred to the toughness of grown specimens, since there was nothing offensive in the bird's diet to taint its flesh and the young tender ones were delicious meat. In his agony, Job felt so much an outcast that he cried:

"I am a brother to jackals,

And a companion to ostriches" (Job 30:29).

Again he records that the Almighty discoursed to him about the ostrich in the following manner:

"The wings of the ostrich wave proudly;

But are they the pinions and plumage of love?" etc.

(Job 39:13-18).

3. Old Testament References: The ostrich history previously given explains all this passage save the last two verses, the first of which is a reference to the fact that the Arabs thought that the ostrich was a stupid bird, because, when it had traveled to the point of exhaustion, it hid its head and thought its body safe, and because some of its eggs were found outside the nest. The second was due to a well-known fact that, given a straight course, the ostrich could outrun a horse. The birds could attain and keep up a speed of 60 miles an hour for the greater part of half a day and even longer, hence, it was possible to capture them only by a system of relay riders (Xenophon, op. cit.) When Isaiah predicted the fall of Babylon, he used these words: "But wild beasts of the desert shall lie there; and their houses shall be full of doleful creatures; and ostriches shall dwell there, and wild goats shall dance there" (Isaiah 13:21). Because this was to be the destruction of a great city, located on the Euphrates River and built by the fertility and prosperity of the country surrounding it, and the ruins those of homes, the bird indicated by every natural condition would be the owl. The wild goats clambering over the ruins would be natural companions and the sneaking wolves--but not the big bird of daytime travel, desert habitation, accustomed to constant pursuit for its plumage. Exactly the same argument applies to the next reference by the same writer (Isaiah 34:13). "And the wild beasts of the desert shall meet with the wolves, and the wild goat shall cry to his fellow; yea, the night monster shall settle there, and shall find her a place of rest" (Isaiah 34:14). "The beasts of the field shall honor me, the jackals and the ostriches; because I give waters in the wilderness, and rivers in the desert, to give drink to my people, my chosen" (Isaiah 43:20). Here we find the ostrich in its natural location, surrounded by creatures that were its daily companions. The next reference also places the bird at home and in customary company: "Therefore the wild beasts of the desert with the wolves shall dwelI there, and the ostriches (the King James Version "owls") shall dwell therein: and it shall be no more inhabited forever; neither shall it be dwelt in from generation to generation" (Jeremiah 50:39).

"Even the jackals draw out the breast, they give suck to their young ones:

The daughter of my people is become cruel, like the ostriches in the wilderness" (Lamentations 4:3).

This reference is made to the supposed cruelty of the ostrich in not raising its young.

Gene Stratton-Porter

Othni

Othni - oth'-ni (`othni, meaning unknown): A son of Shemaiah, a Korahite Levite (1 Chronicles 26:7).

Othniel

Othniel - oth'-ni-el (`othni'el): A hero in Israel, son of Kenaz, Caleb's younger brother. He conquered Kiriath-sepher, later known as Debir, in the territory of Judah in the days of Joshua, and was given the daughter of Caleb, Achsah, to wife as a reward (Joshua 15:17, parallel found in Judges 1:13). He later smote Cushan-rishathaim, king of Mesopotamia, whom the children of Israel had served 8 years, and thus not only saved the Israelites, but by reviving national sentiment among them (compare Ant, V, iv, 3), and reestablishing government, became the first of those hero-rulers known as "judges." The effects of his victory lasted an entire generation (40 years, Judges 3:9-11). He had a son named Hathath (1 Chronicles 4:13) and probably another named Meonothai (compare recensio Luciana of Septuagint, at the place). In the days of David we find a family bearing the name of Othniel, from which came Heldai the Metophathite, captain of the twelfth month (1 Chronicles 27:15).

Nathan Isaacs

Othonias

Othonias - oth-o-ni'-as (Othonias): One of those who had taken "strange wives" (1 Esdras 9:28) = "Mattaniah" of Ezra 10:27.

Ouches

Ouches - ouch'-ez, -iz (mishbetsoth (Exodus 28:11, 13-14, 25; 6, 13, 16, 18) the American Standard Revised Version "settings," but in Exodus 39:13, "inclosings"): The secondary meaning of this now archaic word is the gold or silver setting of a precious stone. In Exodus, where it occurs 8 times, it is clear that the gold settings of the engraved stones forming the breast-plate of the high priest are intended; the onyx stones forming the fibula or brooch for holding together the two sides of the breast-plate being said to be "enclosed in ouches (settings) of gold" (Exodus 39:6). Not only were these two onyx or beryl stones so set, but the 12 stones forming the front of the breast-plate were "inclosed in gold in their settings" (Exodus 28:20). The same word occurs in Psalms 45:13, where the king's daughter is said to have her clothing "in-wrought with gold," i.e. embroidered with gold thread or wire. Exodus 39:3 tells us how this wire was produced. From this fact it may be inferred that the settings of the breast-plate were not solid pieces of gold, but were formed of woven wire wreathed round the stones, in a sort of filigree.

Outcast

Outcast - out'-kast: Represents some form of dachah, or nadhach, both meaning "thrust out." In Jeremiah 30:17 "outcast" means "thrust out of society," "degraded person"; elsewhere it means "exile" (Psalms 147:2; Isaiah 16:3 f; Jeremiah 49:36).

Outer

Outer - out'-er: This adjective is used 12 times by Ezekiel of the outside court of the temple. In Matthew we find it 3 times (8:12; 22:13; 25:30) in "outer darkness" (to skotos to exoteron), which typifies the utter darkness of the doom of the lost.

Outgoing

Outgoing - out'-go-ing: In Psalms 65:8, "Thou makest the outgoings of the morning and evening to rejoice," the Hebrew is motsa'. The word (from yatsa', "to go forth") refers to the "going forth" of the sun, and so means "east" (as in Psalms 75:6). The connection of motsa' with "evening" is therefore zeugmatic, but the meaning is clear and there are extra-Biblical parallels (compare "the two Orients"). In Joshua 17:18, the King James Version uses "outgoings" for the Hebrew totsa'oth (also from yatsa'), where the meaning is "extremity" (the Revised Version (British and American) "goings out," as in Numbers 34:5, etc.). "Outwent" occurs in the margin of Mark 6:33.

Burton Scott Easton

Outlandish

Outlandish - out-land'-ish (Nehemiah 13:26, the King James Version "Him did outlandish women cause to sin"): "Outlandish" in modern English is colloquial only and with the sense "utterly extraordinary," but the King James Version uses it in the literal meaning "out of the land," "foreign," the English Revised Version "strange women," the American Standard Revised Version "foreign women," Hebrew nokhri, "foreign."

Outrage; Outrageous

Outrage; Outrageous - out'-raj, out-ra'-jus: The noun (from the French outre plus age, "that which goes beyond") only in the heading to Psalms 10:1-18 the King James Version; the adjective in Proverbs 27:4, the King James Version and the English Revised Version, for sheTeph, "flood." "Anger is overwhelming" (American Standard Revised Version), is much better.

Outroads

Outroads - out'-rodz (exodeuo, "to go forth," "to make a military expedition"; the King James Version and the Revised Version (British and American) in 1 Maccabees 15:41, "horsemen .... that they might make outroads upon the ways of Judah"; 1 Esdras 4:23, the Revised Version (British and American) "goeth forth to make outroads"): "Outroads" is obsolete, but its opposite, "inroads," is still good English.

Outward Man

Outward Man - out'-werd, (exo, "outside," "without," "out of doors"): The body, subject to decay and death, in distinction from the inner man, the imperishable spiritual life which "is renewed day by day" (2 Corinthians 4:16); also the body as the object of worldly thought and pride in external dress and adornment (1 Peter 3:3).

See MAN, NATURAL; MAN.

Oven

Oven - uv'-'-n.

See BREAD; FURNACE.

Overcharge

Overcharge - o-ver-charj': Luke 21:34, "lest haply your hearts be overcharged with drunkenness" (baruno, "burden," here with the force "be occupied with"); 2 Corinthians 2:5, the King James Version "that I may not overcharge you" (epibareo, "overload"), the Revised Version (British and American) "that I press not too heavily."

See CHARGES.

Overpass

Overpass - o-ver-pas': A special translation of the very common verb `abhar, "to pass over," found in English Versions of the Bible of Psalms 57:1 and Isaiah 26:20 in the sense "to pass by," and in Jeremiah 5:28 with the meaning "to overflow."

Overplus

Overplus - o'-ver-plus: Leviticus 25:27, for `adhaph, "excess."

Overseer

Overseer - o-ver-se'-er, or -ser': One who overlooks, inspects; in the Old Testament from natsach (2 Chronicles 2:18; in 2 Chronicles 34:13 the Revised Version (British and American) changes to "set forward"), and paqadh (Genesis 39:4-5; 2 Chronicles 34:12, 17; the Revised Version (British and American) has this word for the King James Version "officers" in Genesis 41:34, and for "rulers" in 1 Chronicles 26:32); in the New Testament once for episkopos, in Acts 20:28, where the Revised Version (British and American) has "bishops" (margin "overseers"; compare 1 Peter 5:2).

See BISHOP.

Owl

Owl - oul (bath ha-ya`anah; Latin Ulula): The name of every nocturnal bird of prey of the Natural Order Striges. These birds range from the great horned owl of 2 feet in length, through many subdivisions to the little screech-owl of 5 inches. All are characterized by very large heads, many have ear tufts, all have large eyes surrounded by a disk of tiny, stiff, radiating feathers. The remainder of the plumage has no aftershaft. So these birds make the softest flight of any creature traveling on wing. A volume could be written on the eye of the owl, perhaps its most wonderful feature being in the power of the bird to enlarge the iris if it wishes more distinct vision. There is material for another on the prominent and peculiar auditory parts. With almost all owls the feet are so arranged that two toes can be turned forward and two back, thus reinforcing the grip of the bird by an extra toe and giving it unusual strength of foot. All are night-hunters, taking prey to be found at that time, of size according to the strength. The owl was very numerous in the caves, ruined temples and cities, and even in the fertile valleys of Palestine. It is given place in the Bible because it was considered unfit for food and because people dreaded the cries of every branch of the numerous family. It appeared often, as most birds, in the early versions of the Bible; later translators seem to feel that it was used in several places where the ostrich really was intended (see OSTRICH). It would appear to a natural historian that the right bird could be selected by the location, where the text is confusing. The ostrich had a voice that was even more terrifying, when raised in the night, than that of the owl. But it was a bird of the desert, of wide range and traveled only by day. This would confine its habitat to the desert and the greenery where it joined fertile land, but would not bring it in very close touch with civilization. The owl is a bird of ruins, that lay mostly in the heart of rich farming lands, where prosperous cities had been built and then destroyed by enemies. Near these locations the ostrich would be pursued for its plumage, and its nesting conditions did not prevail. The location was strictly the owl's chosen haunt, and it had the voice to fit all the requirements of the text. In the lists of abominations, the original Hebrew yanshuph, derived from a root meaning twilight, is translated "great owl" (see Leviticus 11:17 and Deuteronomy 14:16). It is probable that this was a bird about 2 ft. in length, called the eagle-owl. In the same lists the word koc (nuktikorax) refers to ruins, and the bird indicated is specified as the "little owl," that is, smaller than the great owl--about the size of our barn owl. This bird is referred to as the "mother of ruins," and the translations that place it in deserted temples and cities are beyond all doubt correct. Qippoz (echinos) occurs once (Isaiah 34:15), and is translated "great owl" in former versions; lately (in the American Standard Revised Version) it is changed to "dart-snake" (the English Revised Version "arrowsnake"). In this same description lilith (onokentauros), "a specter of night," was formerly screech-owl, now it reads "night monster," which is more confusing and less suggestive. The owls in the lists of abominations (Leviticus 11:17-18; Deuteronomy 14:16) are the little owl, the great owl and the horned owl. The only other owl of all those that produced such impressions of desolation in the Books of Isaiah, Jeremiah, Job, and Micah is referred to in Psalms 102:6:

"I am like a pelican of the wilderness;

I am become as an owl of the waste places."

Here it would appear that the bird habitual to the wilderness and the waste places, that certainly would be desert, would be the ostrich--while in any quotation referring to ruins, the owl would be the bird indicated by natural conditions.

Gene Stratton-Porter

Owl, Great

Owl, Great - (yanshuph; Septuagint ibis, or eibis): A member of the Palestine species of the family Strigidae. The great owl mentioned in the Bible was no doubt their largest specimen of the family, a bird fully 2 ft. in length, full feathered, with unusually large head and long ear tufts. It was a formidable and noble-appearing bird, with resounding voice. It was abundant among the ruins of temples, the tombs of Carmel, the caves of Gennesaret, and among the ruined cities of Southern Judah. It is included in the abomination lists of Leviticus 11:17 and Deuteronomy 14:16.

See OWL.

Gene Stratton-Porter

Owl, Little

Owl, Little - (koc; nuktikorax; Latin Athene meridionalis): A night bird of prey distinguished by a round head, and extremely large eyes. The little owl is left in the Revised Version (British and American) only in the lists of abominations (see Leviticus 11:17; Deuteronomy 14:16).

See OWL.

Owl, Screech

Owl, Screech - See NIGHT-MONSTER.

Owner

Owner - on'-er.

See SHIPS AND BOATS,III , 2.

Ox (1)

Ox (1) - See ANTELOPE; CATTLE; WILD OX.

Ox (2)

Ox (2) - oks (Ox): One of the ancestors of Judith (Judith 8:1). The name is not Hebrew. Perhaps the Itala Ozi and the Syriac Uz point to the Hebrew Uzzi.

Ox-goad

Ox-goad - oks'-god.

See GOAD.

Ozem

Ozem - o'-zem ('otsem, meaning unknown):

(1) The 6th son of David (1 Chronicles 2:15). Septuagint (Asom) and Vulgate (Jerome's Latin Bible, 390-405 A.D.) suggest that the name should be pointed 'atsom.

(2) A "son" of Jerahmeel (1 Chronicles 2:25).

Ozias

Ozias - o-zi'-as:

(1) (Ozeias, Ozias, Codex Vaticanus a b): The son of Micah, a Simeonite, one of the 3 rulers of Bethulia in the days of Judith (Judith 6:15, 16; 7:23; 8:9 ff; 10:6).

(2) (Ozeias, Codex Vaticanus and Swete; the King James Version has Ezias (1 Esdras 8:2), following Codex Alexandrinus Ezias): An ancestor of Ezra (1 Esdras 8:2; 2 Esdras 1:2) = "Uzzi" of Ezra 7:4; 1 Chronicles 6:51.

(3) Head of a family of temple-servants who returned with Zerubbabel (1 Esdras 5:31) = "Uzza" of Ezra 2:49; Nehemiah 7:51.

(4) Greek form of UZZIAH (which see) in Matthew 1:8-9 the King James Version. A king of Judah.

S. Angus