International Standard Bible Encyclopedia
Carpus — Charitably
Carpus
Carpus - kar'-pus (Karpos): A name but once mentioned in the New Testament (2 Timothy 4:13), "the cloak that I left at Troas with Carpus." These words were written from the dungeons, where Paul was confined during his second imprisonment. The name, common enough in Paul's day, signifies "fruit" (Young) or "wrist" (Davis). The words indicate that Paul must have been very well acquainted with the family of Carpus. He was presumably one of his converts; and the apostle must have lodged with him and also have had considerable confidence in him, since he committed to his care not only the comparatively valueless "cloak," but especially the priceless "books and parchments." It is idle to attempt to find out the identity of Carpus, but one cannot help wondering what were the contents of these books and parchments for which the apostle longed in his bitter second imprisonment.
Henry E. Dosken
Carriage
Carriage - kar'-ij (keli, kebhuddah, nesu'ah; episkeuasamenoi; the Revised Version (British and American) "We took up our baggage"; the American Revised Version, margin "made ready"): One or the other of the above words occurs in six different places and all have been translated in the King James Version by "carriage" in its obsolete meaning (Judges 18:21; 1 Samuel 17:22 (twice); Isaiah 10:28; 46:1; Acts 21:15). In the Revised Version (British and American) and the American Standard Revised Version these are translated by the more modern expressions "goods," "baggage," or "the things that you carried." In 1 Samuel 17:20 the King James Version margin"place of the carriage" occurs as the equivalent of "trench." The Hebrew ma'galah may mean "the place of wagons" as translated in the Revised Version (British and American), as it is not at all improbable that the encampment was surrounded by the baggage train.
James A. Patch
Carry
Carry - kar'-i (nasa', nahagh): The English Versions of the Bible rendering of a number of Hebrew and Greek words, and it has several shades of meaning, of which the following are the most important:
(1) "To take up," "to bear," "to transport from one place to another," as, "to carry away handkerchiefs" (Acts 19:12), "to carry a corpse" (Genesis 50:13), and "to be carried away by the wind" (Daniel 2:35).
(2) "To cause to go" or "come," "to lead," "to drive" as, "to be carried away to Babylon" (2 Kings 20:17), "to be carried" away to Pilate" (Mark 15:1), "to carry away cattle" (Genesis 31:18), and "to carry daughters" (Genesis 31:26).
(3) "To uphold," or "sustain," "and even to hoar hairs will I carry you" (Isaiah 46:4).
(4) "To bear," or "endure," as, "to carry sorrows" (Isaiah 53:4).
(5) "To overwhelm," "to bear away," "to destroy," as, "to carry away as with a flood" (Psalms 90:5).
(6) "To influence," "to move," as, "to carry away with dissimulation" (Galatians 2:13), "to carry away with error" (2 Peter 3:17), "to be carried away by strange teachings" (Hebrews 13:9).
A. W. Fortune
Carshena
Carshena - kar'-she-na, kar-she'-na (karshena'): The first named among the "seven princes of Persia and Media" under Ahasuerus (Esther 1:14).
See PRINCES,THE SEVEN .
Cart
Cart - kart (`aghalah): The Hebrew word has been translated in some passages "cart," and in others "wagon." In one verse only has it been translated "chariot." The context of the various passages indicates that a distinction was made between vehicles which were used for carrying baggage or produce and those used for carrying riders (chariots), although in their primitive form of construction they were much the same (compare English "cart" and "carriage").
Carts, like "chariots" (which see), were of Assyrian origin. They were early carried to Egypt where the flat nature of the country readily led to their adoption. From Egypt they gradually found their way among the people of the Palestinian plains. In the hills of Judea and Central Palestine, except where highways were built (1 Samuel 6:12), the nature of the country prevented the use of wheeled vehicles. 1 Samuel 6:7-8, 10-11, 14 show that the people of the plains used carts. The men of Kiriath-jearim found it easier to carry the ark (1 Samuel 7:1). Their attempt to use a cart later (2 Samuel 6:3, 1; 1 Chronicles 13:7) proved disastrous and they abandoned it for a safer way (2 Samuel 6:13).
That carts were used at a very early date is indicated by Numbers 7:3, 7-8. That these vehicles were not the common mode of conveyance in Palestine is shown in Genesis 45:1-28. Pharaoh commanded that Joseph's brethren should return to their father with their beasts of burden (Genesis 45:21) and take with them Egyptian wagons (Genesis 45:19, 21; 46:6) for bringing back their father and their families. The very unusual sight of the wagons was proof to Jacob of Joseph's existence (Genesis 45:27).
Bible descriptions and ancient Babylonian and Egyptian pictures indicate that the cart was usually two-wheeled and drawn by two oxen.
With the Arabian conquests and subsequent ruin of the roads wheeled vehicles disappeared from Syria and Palestine. History is again repeating itself. The Circassians, whom the Turkish government has settled near Caesarea, Jerash (Gerasa) and Amman (Philadelphia), have introduced a crude cart which must be similar to that used in Old Testament times. The two wheels are of solid wood. A straight shaft is joined to the wooden axle, and to this a yoke of oxen is attached. On the Philistian plains may be seen carts of present-day Egyptian origin but of a pattern many centuries old. With the establishment of government roads during the last 50 years, European vehicles of all descriptions are fast coming into the country.
One figurative reference is made to the cart (Isaiah 5:18), but its meaning is obscure.
James A. Patch
Carving
Carving - karv'-ing: Carving, or engraving, was extensively used among the peoples of Bible lands. There were no materials used in the arts which were not subjected to the graver's skill. Carved objects of wood, stone, ivory, clay, bronze, gold, silver and glass discovered today show how skillful the ancient carvers were. Carving was principally done in bas-relief, although Exodus 28:11 shows that incised lines were also used. The signets and scarabs are examples of this class of carving. Several Hebrew words have been translated "carved" in the King James Version. Pecel or pecil is found in Judges 18:18; 2 Chronicles 33:7, 22; 3, 1; chaqah in 1 Kings 6:35. The translation "graven" appears in the Revised Version (British and American) of all these passages. In 1 Kings 6:29, 32, 35, qala appears; in 1 Kings 6:18, 32, miqla`ath; in 1 Kings 6:29 and Psalms 74:6, pittuach; in Exodus 31:5; 35:33, charosheth (see CARPENTER); chaTubhah in Proverbs 7:16 is better translated "striped" as in the Revised Version (British and American). For further notes on carving, see CRAFTS.
James A. Patch
Casdim
Casdim - kaz'-dim
See CHESED.
Case
Case - kas: Ordinarily to describe the circumstances or condition of things; sometimes, juridically (aitia, Matthew 19:10; Acts 25:14), as that for which a reckoning has to be given, as frequently the Latin res. In Exodus 5:19, "they were in evil case," is interpreted by the Revised Version (British and American) as "were set on mischief."
Casement
Casement - kas'-ment.
See HOUSE.
Casiphia
Casiphia - ka-sif'-i-a, ka-sif-e'-a (kaciphya'): An unidentified place in North Babylonia, near the river Ahava, to which Ezra sent for "ministers for the house of our God" (Ezra 8:17). Some have thought the name to be connected with keceph, "silver" or "money." Septuagint renders argurio tou topou, as in 1 Esdras 8:45, "the place of the treasury."
Casluhim
Casluhim - kas'-lu-him, kas-lu-him (kacluchim; Chasmonieim): The name of a people mentioned in Genesis 10:14; 1 Chronicles 1:12 as descended from Mizraim. The parenthesis should probably follow Caphtorim. From them, it is said, sprang the PHILISTINES, which see.
Casphon
Casphon - kas'-fon.
See CASPHOR.
Casphor
Casphor - kas'-for (the King James Version Casphon; Kasphor, 1 Maccabees 5:26; Chasphon, Chasphoth, 5:36; Kaspein, 2 Maccabees 12:13): A city East of the Jordan captured by Judas Maccabeus (1 Maccabees 5:36). It is probably identical with Caspis of 2 Maccabees 12:13. It was a fortress of great strength, with a lake near it. This has led some to think it may be represented by el-Muzerib, an important station on the pilgrim route to Mecca. The ancient name of this city, however, has not been discovered.
See ASHTAROTH
Caspin; Caspis
Caspin; Caspis - kas'-pin, kas'-pis.
See CASPHOR.
Cassia
Cassia - kash'-a: Two Hebrew words, (1) qiddah, which is mentioned, along with myrrh, cinnamon, calamus and olive oil, as one of the ingredients of the "holy anointing oil" (Exodus 30:24); it was, too, one of the wares in which Vedan and Javan traded with Tyre (Ezekiel 27:19); it is identified in the Peshitta and the Targum with (2). (2) qetsi`oth (plural only, probably referring to the strips of bark), a word from which is derived the Greek kasia, and hence, cassia (Psalms 45:8). It is probable that both (1) and (2) refer to Cassia lignea, the inner bark of Cinnamomum cassia, a plant growing in eastern Asia closely allied to that which yields the cinnamon of commerce. It is a fragrant, aromatic bark and was probably used in a powdered form. Both as an ingredient in unguents and as one of the perfumes at funerals, cassia, like cinnamon, was much used by the Romans. The cassia of Scripture must be clearly distinguished from the entirely distinct Cassia lanceolata and C. obovata which yield the familiar senna. The proper name KEZIAH (which see) is the singular form of ketsi`oth.
E. W. G. Masterman
Cast
Cast - In general "to throw," with various degrees of violence; usually, with force, but not so necessarily, as e.g. in "cast a net," "cast lots." When applied to molten metal, as in English, first, "to let run. into molds," with reference to their descent by gravity, and, then, "to form," as in Exodus 25:12, etc. Usually in the New Testament for ballo, but not always. Thus, in Luke 1:29 "cast in her mind" means "considered" (dielogizeto); "cast reproach" for Greek oneidizon, "reproached" (Matthew 27:44); "casting down" for kathaireo, "demolishing" (2 Corinthians 10:4); "casting all anxiety upon" (1 Peter 5:7), a still stronger term, as in Luke 17:2 the King James Version; Acts 27:19. As a fundamental Greek word, it is compounded with many prepositions, "about," "away," "down," "forth," "in," "into," "off," "out," "up," "upon." "Cast down" in 2 Corinthians 4:9 the King James Version is used in a military sense of one prostrated, but not killed in battle. Compare Psalms 42:5 with the Revised Version, margin. "Castaway" of the King James Version in 1 Corinthians 9:27, is in the Revised Version (British and American) "rejected" (compare Hebrews 6:8), adokimos, i.e. what the application of a test shows to be counterfeit, or unfit; translated "reprobate" in Romans 1:28; 2 Corinthians 13:5-6, 7, etc.
H. E. Jacobs
Castanets
Castanets - kas'-ta-nets, kas-ta-nets' (mena`an`im): Are mentioned in 2 Samuel 6:5 among the musical instruments upon which David and the house of Israel played at the time of the bringing up of the ark out of the house of Abinadab. This word is incorrectly translated "cornets" in the King James Version. The castanet was probably about the same kind of instrument as the Egyptian sistrum, and the Revised Version (British and American) has "sistra" in the margin of 2 Samuel 6:5. The sialrum was a loop-shaped metal frame through which were passed loose rods at the ends of which were rings. The instrument was held by a long handle and was rattled during songs and dances. It was used in Egypt in religious worship or to scare away evil influences. There is only the one reference to this instrument in the Bible.
A. W. Fortune
Castaway
Castaway - kast'-a-wa (adokimos, from dokimazo, "I test," "I approve after testing," hence, approved after being tested): This word is rendered "castaway" only in the King James Version: "I myself should be a castaway" ("rejected" the Revised Version (British and American), the American Standard Revised Version, 1 Corinthians 9:27). But the same word occurs a number of times usually translated "reprobate" (Romans 1:28; 2 Corinthians 13:5-7; 2 Timothy 3:8; Titus 1:16); "rejected" (Hebrews 6:8).
Castle
Castle - kas'-'-l.
See FORTIFICATION.
Castor and Pollux
Castor and Pollux - kas'-ter, pol'-uks.
Cat
Cat - (ailouros): The only mention of this animal is in Baruch 6:22. It is not mentioned in the canonical Scriptures, though Bochart (Hieroz., 862) gives "wild cats" as the equivalent of tsyim in Isaiah 13:21; 34:14; Jeremiah 50:39; Psalms 74:19, where English Versions of the Bible gives "wild beasts of the desert." Mention is, however, made of cats, cathod, in the Welsh Bible (lsa 34:14). The only mention of the catta in classical Latin writers is in Martial xiii.69. How the cat was regarded in Egypt is described in Herod. ii.66 and Rawlinson's notes. In Baruch 6:22 cats are mentioned with "bats, swallows and birds" as sitting with impunity on the images of the heathen gods which are unable to drive them off.
See also ZOOLOGY.
J. Hutchison
Catechist; Catechumen
Catechist; Catechumen - kat'-e-kist, kate-ku'-men (katechizein "to resound," "to teach," "to instruct"): A catechist is a teacher who instructs his pupils in the elements of his own religion. In the Old Testament he teaches them the rudiments of Old Testament truth; in the New Testament he teaches the principles of the Christian faith. A catechumen, one whom the catechist instructs or catechizes, in preparation for the ceremony of baptism.
The words are derived from katechein, meaning "to give a sound," "to answer," "to echo." Classically it was used of the sounding down of rushing water, of the falling of music from a ship to the sea. Then it came to signify the sounding down of words of command or instruction. The preposition kata strengthens the meaning, bringing out more emphatically the back or return sound, the echo, the answer. So it came to mean familiar verbal instruction, a free informal discussion between teacher and pupil. Luke informs Theophilus (Luke 1:4) that he intends to give him a succinct and orderly account of those things which he had previously received by word of mouth (peri hon katechethes). See also the Greek in Acts 18:25 and Acts 21:21; Romans 2:18; 1 Corinthians 14:19; Galatians 6:6. In all these passages the Greek verb is "catechised."
We do not find in the New Testament an organized catechumenate, such as we find in the 3rd and 4th centuries. The apostles preached mainly to synagogue-instructed Jews who were familiar with the law and the prophets and the Psalms, or to Gentiles who had, learned from the Jews and had become "proselytes" (which see). The first apostolic preaching and teaching was to convince the hearers that Jesus was the promised Messiah, the Saviour of the world. As believers multiplied, the contrast between them and those who rejected the teaching became more and more marked. Opposition, scorn and persecution became more bold and bitter. The Christians were compelled to set forth and defend their beliefs more clearly. They had to meet and answer keen and persistent objections. And so the necessity for clear, systematic and organized teaching grew more and more into the form of an ordered catechumenate. The Apostolic Constitutions, from the latter part of the 3rd century, show the institution in a fair state of development. A Jew, pagan, or heretic of good moral standing, upon application to the deacon, presbyter, or bishop, was admitted into the state of catechumen by the sign of the cross and the imposition of hands (Schaff-Herzog, under the word).
The basis for the Christian catechumenate we find in the great commission (Matthew 28:19-20). The aim of this commission was to make disciples, i.e. believing followers. The means for this discipling are baptizing and teaching. The result of using the means is that those who have become disciples are to observe all things whatsoever Christ has commanded.
Jesus Himself at twelve years of age had become a child of the law, a catechumen. He increased in wisdom and learned obedience. He became the great Catechist instructing His disciples, other private individuals and the multitudes. See an example of His catechizing in Matthew 16:13 ff.
Paul was a master in method. See examples of use of the modern pedagogical method of apperception in Acts 14:14 ff; Acts 17:16 ff; Acts 19:8-9. The cathechetical method is frequently found in the epistles (see 1 Corinthians 3:1-2; Hebrews 5:11, 14; Hebrews 6:1-2; 1 Peter 2:2; 1 John 2:13), and so the idea of religious nurture and instruction is found all through the New Testament. The catechist and the catechumen are there. It was not something new in the New Testament. Its roots lie back and run through the Old Testament. The narrative of God's first communication with man, inside the gates of Eden, concerning commandment, law, sin, its consequences, its remedy, takes a catechetical form. The importance of systematic instruction, both public and private, is emphasized throughout the Old Testament and New Testament, although it might not always take the form of catechizing in the modern pedagogical sense. In the patriarchal age the father was the prophet, the teacher, the catechist, in his house, which often included several families with their servants (see Genesis 18:19). Matthew Henry explains thus: "Abraham not only took care of his children, but his whole household, including his servants, were catechized" (see also Exodus 12:26; Deuteronomy 6:1-9; Joshua 4:6-7; 24:15; Psalms 34:11). Priests and Levites in addition to their sacerdotal functions were catechists (instructors) among the people (Leviticus 10:11; Deuteronomy 33:10; 2 Chronicles 15:3; Ezekiel 44:23). In later times the synagogues had regular instruction in the law and the prophets.
See EDUCATION; INSTRUCTION;TEACHER .
G. H. Gerberding
Caterpillar
Caterpillar - kat'-er-pil-er (chacil (Psalms 78:46; Joel 1:4, etc.); yeleq (Psalms 105:34 the King James Version, the American Standard Revised Version "grasshopper"; Jeremiah 51:14, 27 the King James Version; elsewhere "canker-worm")): A name given to a larval stage of the LOCUST (which see).
Catholic Epistles
Catholic Epistles - kath'-o-lik (epistolai katholikai): In distinction from the apostolic or Pauline epistles which were addressed to individual churches or persons, the term "catholic," in the sense of universal or general, was applied by Origen and the other church Fathers to the seven epistles written by James, Peter, John and Jude. As early as the 3rd century it came to be used in the sense of "encyclical," "since," as Theodoret says, "they are not addressed to single churches, but generally (katholou) to the faithful, whether to the Jews of the Dispersion, as Peter writes, or even to all who are living as Christians under the same faith." Three other explanations of the term have been given, namely, (1) that it was intended to indicate a common apostolic authorship (only a few support this view); (2) that it signifies that the seven epistles were universally received as genuine; (3) that it refers to the catholicity of their doctrine, i.e. orthodox and authoritative versus heretical epistles whose teachings were in harmony with Christian truth. By some misconception of the word "catholic" the Western Church interpreted it as signifying "canonical" and sometimes called these epistles epistolae canonicae. That it was originally used in the sense of "general" epistles is now commonly received.
This is evident from their form of address. James wrote to all Jews, "of the Dispersion," who had embraced the Christian faith. In his first epistle Peter addressed the same Christians, including also Gentileconverts, resident in five provinces of Asia Minor: "elect who axe sojourners of the Dispersion." His second epistle is to all Christians everywhere. John's first letter was evidently written to a cycle of churches and intended for universal use. Jude also had in mind all Christians when he said "to them that are called beloved in God," etc. The seeming exceptions are 2 and 3 Jn, addressed to individuals, but included with the catholic epistles as properly belonging with John's first epistle and of value to the general reader. The character and contents of these seven epistles are treated under their various heads. The letters of James and Jude belong to the Judaic school of Christianity; those of Peter to a broad and non-partisan type of faith that both includes and mediates between the Judaists and Paulinists. John's letters were written after the internal doctrinal controversies of the church had ceased, and the pressure of opposition and error from without tended to unite his "little children" in a new community of love and spiritual life.
Dwight M. Pratt
Cathua
Cathua - ka-thu'-a (Kathoua; Codex Vaticanus, Koua): Head of a family of temple-servants who returned from the captivity with Zerubbabel (1 Esdras 5:30); corresponds to Giddel in Ezra 2:47.
Cattle
Cattle - kat'-'-l (behemah, "a dumb beast"; miqneh, "a possession" from qanah, "to acquire" (compare Arabic qana', "to acquire," and Greek kienos, "beast," and plural ktenea, "flocks," from ktaomai, "to acquire," flocks being both with the Homeric peoples and with the patriarchs an important form of property; compare English "fee"); tso'n "small cattle," "sheep" or goats (compare Arabic da'n, "sheep"); seh, a single sheep or goat (compare Arabic shah); mela'khah, "property," from la'akh, "to minister" (compare Arabic malakah and mulk, "property," from malak, "to possess"); meri' "fatling" (1 Kings 19:1-21); thremma (John 4:12), "cattle," i.e. "that which is nourished," from trepho, "to nourish"; baqar, "kine," "oxen" (compare Arabic baqar, "cattle"); shor, tor (Daniel 4:25), tauros (Matthew 22:4), "ox" or "bull"; bous, "ox" (Luke 13:15); 'eleph, only in the plural, 'alaphim, "oxen" (Psalms 8:7)): From the foregoing and by examination of the many references to "cattle," "kine" or "oxen" it is apparent that there are important points of contact in derivation and usage in the Hebrew, Greek and English terms. It is evident that neat cattle were possessed in abundance by the patriarchs and later Israelites, which is fax from being the case in Palestine at the present day. The Bedouin usually have no cattle. The fellachin in most parts of the country keep them in small numbers, mostly for plowing, and but little for milk or for slaughtering. Travelers in the Holy Land realize that goat's milk is in most places easier to obtain than cow's milk. The commonest cattle of the fellachin are a small black breed. In the vicinity of Damascus are many large, fine milch cattle which furnish the delicious milk and cream of the Damascus bazaars. For some reason, probably because they are not confined and highly fed, the bulls of Palestine are meek creatures as compared with their European or American fellows.
In English Versions of the Bible the word "cattle" is more often used in a wide sense to include sheep and goats than to denote merely neat cattle. In fact, baqar, which distinctively denotes neat cattle, is often rendered "herds," as tso'n, literally "sheep," is in a large number of instances translated "flocks." A good illustration is found in Genesis 32:7: "Then Jacob .... divided the, people (`am) that were with him, and the flocks (tso'n), and the herds (baqar), and the camels (gemallim), into two companies (machanoth)." For the last word the King James Version has "drove" in Genesis 33:8, the Revised Version (British and American) "company." Next to tso'n, the word most commonly rendered "flock" in English Versions of the Bible is `edher, from root "to arrange," "to set in order." `Edher is rendered "herd" in Proverbs 27:23, and in Joel 1:18 it occurs twice, being rendered "herds of cattle," `edhre baqar, and "flocks of sheep," `edhre ha-tso'n. Miqneh is rendered "flock" in Numbers 32:26, "herd" in Genesis 47:18, and "cattle" in a large number of passages. Other words rendered "flock" are: mar`ith (r. ra`ah (Arabic ra`a), "to pasture"), once in Jeremiah 10:21; `ashteroth tso'n, "flocks of thy sheep," the Revised Version (British and American) "young of thy flock," in Deuteronomy 7:13, etc., `ashiaroth being plural of `ashtoreth, or Ashtoreth; chasiph, once in 1 Kings 20:27: "The Children of Israel encamped before them (the Syrians) like two little flocks of kids," chasiph signifying "something stripped off or separated," from root chasaph, "to strip" or "to peel," like the Arabic qaTi`, "flock," from root qaTa`, "to cut off"; poimne (Matthew 26:31): "The sheep of the flock shall be scattered," and (Luke 2:8): "keeping watch by night over their flock"; poimnion (Luke 12:32): "Fear not, little flock," and (1 Peter 5:2): "Tend the flock of God which is among you."
Figurative: Not only poimne and poimnion but also `edher and tso'n are used figuratively of God's people; e.g. Isaiah 40:11: "He will feed his flock (`edher) like a shepherd"; Zechariah 10:3: "Yahweh of hosts hath visited his flock ([`edher]), the house of Judah"; Isaiah 65:10: "And Sharon shall be a fold of flocks" (tso'n); Jeremiah 23:2: "Ye have scattered my flock" (tso'n); Ezekiel 34:22: "Therefore will I save my flock" (tso'n); Micah 7:14: "Feed .... the flock (tso'n) of thy heritage."
The wild ox or wild bull, the Revised Version (British and American) "antelope" (te'o or to' of Deuteronomy 14:5 and Isaiah 51:20), is considered by the writer to be probably the Arabian oryx, and in this he is in agreement with Tristram (NHB). Tristram however thinks that the unicorn (rem or re'em), the Revised Version (British and American) "wild ox," was the aurochs, while the present writer believes that this also may well have been the oryx, which at the present day has at least three names in Arabic, one of which, baqar-ul-wachsh, means "wild ox."
See ANTELOPE.
Our domestic cattle are believed by some of the best authorities to be of the same species as the ancient European wild ox or aurochs, Bos taurus, which is by others counted as a distinct species under the title of Bos primigeniusú The aurochs was widely spread over Europe in Roman times, but is now extinct. Some degenerate wild cattle are preserved in some British parks, but these according to Lydekker in the Royal Natural History are probably feral descendants of early domestic breeds. Tristram cites the occurrence in the Dog River bone breccia of teeth which may be those of the aurochs, but this is a deposit accumulated by prehistoric man of an unknown antiquity to be variously estimated according to the predilections of the geologist at a few thousands or a few score of thousands of years, and is far from proving that this animal existed in Palestine in Bible times or at any time.
The European bison (Bos or Bison bonassus) is thought by some to be the wild ox of the Bible. This is a forest-dwelling species and is now confined to the forests of Lithuania and the Caucasus. It was formerly more widely distributed, but there is no certain evidence that it ever lived as far South as Palestine, and there have probably never existed in Palestine forests suitable to be the haunts of this animal.
About the Sea of Tiberias and the Jordan valley and in the plain of Coele-Syria there exist today Indian buffaloes (Bos bubalus) some feral and some in a state of domestication, which are believed to have been introduced in comparatively recent times.
Alfred Ely Day
Cauda
Cauda - ko'-da (Kauda; also called Klauda; the King James Version Clauda; the modern Greek name Gaudho supports the form Cauda): An island 23 miles West of Cape Matala. It is a small island, and can never have supported a large population, or have been of any importance. Its elevation to the rank of a bishopric in Byzantine times must have been due to its association with the voyage of Paul. The ship with Paul on board was driven under the lee of Cauda (Acts 27:16); in the calm water south of the island the crew succeeded in hauling in the boat, undergirding the ship and slackening sail.
W. M. Calder
Caul
Caul - kol:
(1) yothereth (Exodus 29:13), the large lobe or flap of the liver, which is usually mentioned together with the kidneys and the fat as the special portions set aside for the burnt offering (Leviticus 3:4, 10, 15; 4:9; 7:4; 16, 25; 10, 19).
(2) ceghor (from the root caghar, "to enclose," "shut up"), Hosea 13:8, literally the enclosure or covering of the heart, the caul or pericardium, or perhaps the chest as surrounding the heart. It must not be forgotten, however, that the expression may be taken in the sense of "mailcoat of the heart," i.e. hardened heart, which is shut to the influence of God's grace. So Luther and many modern translators and commentators.
H. L. E. Luering
Cause
Cause - kos: In both the King James Version and the Revised Version (British and American) "for this cause" (the King James Version "cause") occurs in Exodus 9:16 as the rendering of ba`abhur zo'th = "in order that"; "to the end that"; so also in Daniel 2:12 for kol-qebhel denah, and in 2 Chronicles 32:20 the King James Version for `al-zo'th, where RVS read "because of." In the New Testament the word is used adverbially in the translation of several Greek phrases: heneka toutou (Matthew 19:5; Mark 10:7); dia touto, John 12:27; Romans 1:26; 13:6; 15:9 (the Revised Version (British and American) "therefore"); 1 Corinthians 11:30; 1 Thessalonians 2:13; 2 Thessalonians 2:11; 1 Timothy 1:16; Hebrews 9:15; eis touto, John 18:37 (where the King James Version varying the phraseology reads "to this end" "for this cause"); 1 Peter 4:6 the King James Version; toutou charin, Ephesians 3:14. Unusual renderings occur, as "for his cause" (= "because of"), 2 Corinthians 7:12; as = "affair," "thing," obsolete in the King James Version 1 Kings 12:15; 2 Chronicles 10:15, where the word occurs as a paraphrase of necibbah (= "turn of affairs"). In 1 Samuel 25:31 (King James Version, the Revised Version (British and American)) "causeless" (= without cause the American Standard Revised Version) occurs arbitrarily in adverb sense.
W. N. Stearns
Causeway; Causey
Causeway; Causey - koz'-wa, ko'-zi (more correctly ): This word occurs in 1 Chronicles 26:16, 18 for the Hebrew mecillah; Septuagint pastophorion tes anabaseos. In 2 Chronicles 9:11 the word is translated "terraces" (Septuagint anabaseis). Compare BDB , under the word, where mecilloth, is an error for mic`adhoth (1 Kings 10:12). In all the above passages reference is made to a series or flight of steps leading up into the temple. The word also signifies a prepared, traveled road, as in Numbers 20:19; Judges 20:31 f,45; 1 Samuel 6:12; 2 Samuel 20:12 f; 2 Kings 18:17 (Isaiah 36:2); Isaiah 7:3; 11:16; 19:23; 33:8; 40:3; 49:11; Jeremiah 31:21.
Figurative: In Isaiah 59:7 the word (mecillah) occurs in a figurative sense, so also in Judges 5:20; Proverbs 16:17.
W. N. Stearns
Cave
Cave - kav ([me`arah] (compare Arabic magharah), chor (Job 30:6 the King James Version), mechilloth (Isaiah 2:19); ope (Hebrews 11:38), spelaion (John 11:38); chor, more often rendered "hole," is akin to Arabic khaur, "gulf" or "inlet," but is also related to me`arah (compare also Arabic ghaur "low-land," especially of the Jordan valley and Dead Sea). Mechilloth (root, chalal, "to pierce" (compare Arabic khall, "to pierce")) occurs only in Isaiah 2:19, where the King James Version has "caves" and translates me`aroth in the same verse by "holes." In the Revised Version (British and American) these words are very properly changed about. Spelaion is a common Greek word for "cave"; ope means rather "hole"): In Palestine as in other limestone countries, caves are of frequent occurrence, and not a few of large size are known. Water from the rain and snow, seeping down through cracks, enlarges the passages through which it goes by dissolving away the substance of the rock. Just as upon the surface of the land the trickling streams unite to form brooks and rivers, so many subterranean streams may come together in a spacious channel, and may issue upon the surface as a bold spring. The cave of the Dog River near Beirut and that of 'Afqa (perhaps Aphek (Joshua 13:4)) in Lebanon are excellent examples of this. Not infrequently after forming a cave the stream of water may find some lower outlet by a different route, leaving its former course dry. In some cases the hinder part of the roof of the cave may fall in, leaving the front part standing as a natural bridge. Numerous shallow caves, especially in the faces of cliffs, are formed not by seeping water, but by atmospheric erosion, a portion of a relatively soft stratum of rock being hollowed out, while harder strata above and below it are but little worn away. Many of the hermits' caves originated in this way and were artificially enlarged and walled up at the mouth. The principal caves mentioned in the Bible are those of MACHPELAH, MAKKEDAH and ADULLAM (which see).
See DEN.
Alfred Ely Day
Cease
Cease - ses: A remarkable array of 20 Hebrew and 6 Greek words is so translated. In the King James Version 15 of the former and 3 of the latter are used only once with this rendering. The originals most frequently in use are chadhal, "to leave off"; shabhath "to rest from" (labor); pauomai, "to make to cease." Few words illustrate better the fertility of the Hebrew in expressing limitless shades of meaning, impoverished by the use of one English word. This extensive variety is, however, well expressed by "cease": i.e. stop, come to an end, e.g. ceasing of tears (Jeremiah 14:17); work (Ezra 4:24); grinders (Ecclesiastes 12:3); thunder (Exodus 9:29); the wicked (Job 3:17); anger (Psalms 37:8). The significance of shabhath lies in its being the Hebrew for Sabbath, implying complete cessation: as of manna (Joshua 5:12); strife and ignominy (Proverbs 22:10); occurs with negative to show the ceaseless Providence of God in Nature: "summer and winter .... shall not c." (Genesis 8:22). In the New Testament it illustrates Christ's power over Nature; wind and raging sea ceased (Luke 8:24); over a sinner's heart: "not ceased to kiss my feet" (dialeipo) (Luke 7:45); devotion of the early disciples, "ceased not to teach and to preach Jesus as the Christ" (Acts 5:42); the eternity and blessedness of the believer's sabbatic rest (apoleipo) (Hebrews 4:10 the King James Version).
Dwight M. Pratt
Cedar
Cedar - se'-dar, se'-der ('erez, from Hebrew root meaning "to be firm"; kedros): The 'erez was in almost all the Old Testament references the true cedar, Cedrus libani, but the name may have been applied in a loose way to allied trees, such as junipers and pines. In Numbers 24:6--"as cedar-trees beside the waters"--the reference must, as is most probable, be purely poetical (see ALOES) or the 'arazim must signify some other kind of tree which flourishes beside water.
1. Cedar for Ritual Cleansing: Cedar is twice mentioned as a substance for ritual cleansing. In Leviticus 14:4 the cleansed leper was sprinkled with the blood of a "clean bird" into which had been put "cedar-wood, and scarlet, and hyssop." In Numbers 19:6 "cedar-wood, and hyssop, and scarlet" were to be cast into the holocaust of the red heifer. (For the symbolical meaning see CLEAN.) Here it is very generally considered that the cedar could not have been the wood of Cedrus libani, which so far as we know never grew in the wilderness, but that of some species of juniper--according to Post, Juniperis phoenicea, which may still be found in the wilderness of Edom.
2. Cedar Trees in the Old Testament: Cedar trees are everywhere mentioned with admiration in the Old Testament. Solomon made the cedar the first of trees (1 Kings 4:33). They are the "glory of Lebanon" (Isaiah 35:2; 60:13). The most boastful threat of Sennacherib was that he would cut down the tall cedars of Lebanon (Isaiah 37:24). They were strong, as is implied in--
"The voice of Yahweh is powerful; ....
The voice of Yahweh breaketh the cedars;
Yea, Yahweh breaketh in pieces the cedars of Lebanon"
(Psalms 29:4-5).
The cedars are tall--"whose height was like the height of the cedars"--(Amos 2:9; 2 Kings 19:23); majestic (2 Kings 14:9), and excellent (Song of Solomon 5:15). The Assyrian power is compared to--"a cedar in Lebanon with fair branches, and with a forest-like shade, an high stature; and its top was among the thick boughs .... its stature was exalted above all the trees of the field; and its boughs were multiplied, and its branches became long" (Ezekiel 31:3-5). They are in particular God's trees--
"The trees of Yahweh are filled with moisture,
The cedars of Lebanon, which he hath planted" (Psalms 104:16).
Doubtless as a reminiscence of this the Syrians today call the cedar `ars er rubb, "the cedar of the Lord." The growth of the cedar is typical of that of the righteous man (Psalms 92:12).
That cedars were once very abundant in the Lebanon is evident (1 Kings 6:9-18; 10:27). What they contributed to the glory and beauty of that district may be seen in Zechariah 11:1-2:
"Open thy doors, O Lebanon, that the fire may devour thy cedars.
Wail, O fir-tree, for the cedar is fallen, because the
glorious (Revised Version margin) ones are destroyed:
Wail, O ye oaks of Bashan, for the strong forest is come down."
3. Cedar Timber: The wood of the cedar has always been highly prized--much more so than the sycamore (1 Kings 10:27; Isaiah 9:10). David had a house of cedar built for him by Hiram, king of Tyre (2 Samuel 5:11), and he prepared "cedar-trees without number" for the temple which his son was to build (1 Chronicles 22:4). Cedar timber was very much used in the construction of Solomon's temple and palace, the trees being cut in the Lebanon by Sidonians by orders of the king of Tyre--"Hiram gave Solomon timber of cedar and timber of fir according to all his desire" (1 Kings 5:6-10). One of Solomon's most important buildings was known as "the house of the forest of Lebanon" (1 Kings 7:2; 10:17; 2 Chronicles 9:16), on account of the source of its materials. While cedar was well adapted for beams ( 1 Kings 6:9; Song of Solomon 1:17), boards (Song of Solomon 8:9), pillars (1 Kings 7:2) and ceilings (Jeremiah 22:14), it was suited as well for carved work, such as idols (Isaiah 44:14-15). It was also used for ships' masts (Ezekiel 27:5).
4. Cedars in Modern Syria: The Cedrus libani still survives in the mountains of Syria and flourishes in much greater numbers in the Taurus mountains. "There are groves of cedars above el-Ma`acir, Baruk, `Ain Zehaltah, Hadith, Besherri, and Sir" (Post, Flora, 751). Of these the grove at Besherri is of world-wide renown. It consists of a group of about 400 trees, among them some magnificent old patriarchs, which lies on the bare slopes of the Lebanon some 6,000 ft. above the sea. Doubtless they are survivors of a forest which here once covered the mountain slopes for miles. The half a dozen highest specimens reach a height of between 70 and 80 ft., and have trunks of a circumference of 40 ft. or more. It is impossible to estimate with any certainty their age, but they may be as much as 800, or even 1,000, years old. Though magnificent, these are by no means the largest of their kind. Some of the cedars of Amanus are quite 100 ft. high and the Himalayan cedar, Cedrus deodara, a variety of Cedrus libani, reaches a height of 150 ft. The impressiveness of the cedar lies, however, not so much in its height and massive trunk, as in the wonderful lateral spread of its branches, which often exceeds its height. The branches grow out horizontally in successive tiers, each horizontal plane presenting, when looked at from above, the appearance of a green sward. The leaves are about an inch long, arranged in clusters; at first they are bright green, but they change with age to a deeper tint with a glaucous hue; the foliage is evergreen, the successive annual growths of leaves each lasting two years. The cones, 4 to 6 inches long, are oval or oblong-ovate, with a depression at times at the apex; they require two years to reach maturity and then, unlike other conifers, they remain attached to the tree, dropping out their scales bearing the seeds.
The wood of the cedar, specially grown under the conditions of its natural habitat, is hard, close grained, and takes a high polish. It is full of resin (Psalms 92:14) which preserves it from rot and from worms. Cedar oil, a kind of turpentine extracted from the wood, was used in ancient times as a preservative for parchments and garments.
E. W. G. Masterman
Cedron
Cedron - se'-dron.
See KIDRON.
Ceilan
Ceilan - se'-lan.
See KILAN.
Ceiled; Ceiling
Ceiled; Ceiling - seld, sel'-ing (the King James Version and the English Revised Version Cieled, Cieling; the Hebrew words for "ceiled" are chippah, caphan, sachiph; for "ceiling," cippun): Ceiling occurs only in 1 Kings 6:15. It comes from the root caphan, meaning "to cover." It has its common meaning of the upper surface of a room; there is, however, some doubt of the textual Ceiled is found in 2 Chronicles 3:5 ((chippah); Jeremiah 22:14; Haggai 1:4 (caphan in both); Ezekiel 41:16 (sachiph)), the text of the last passage being doubtful. In none of these cases does "ceiled" refer to the upper surface of a room, but to the covering or paneling of the inner walls of a house with cedar or other costly wood. This is in accordance with a common early use of the English word, no longer frequent.
George Ricker Berry
Celebrate
Celebrate - sel'-e-brat: Of the three Hebrew words so rendered halal, "to praise" is preeminently significant. It is an onomatopoetic word meaning "to give a clear sharp sound," as word in vocal rejoicing, celebration. Its equivalent in Ethiopic is ellell, German hallen, English halloo, and appears in the great choral word Hallelujah of the Hebrew religion. Passing into Christian use it has become the term most expressive of majestic praise. Psalms 113:1-9 through Psalms 118:1-29 and Psalms 136:1-26 are called Hallel psalms. Found in Hezekiah's psalm of praise for his miraculous recovery: "Death cannot celebrate thee" (Isaiah 38:18). chaghagh, root meaning "to move in a circle" hence, "to keep a festival" by sacred leaping and dancing; "celebrate (the Revised Version (British and American) "keep") a feast" (Leviticus 23:41); shabhath, "to rest," i.e. keep or observe a holy day; "celebrate (the Revised Version (British and American) "keep") your sabbath" (Leviticus 23:32).
Dwight M. Pratt
Celestial
Celestial - se-les'-chal (epouranios, "above the sky," "heavenly"): Peculiar to Paul's majestic argument on the resurrection: celestial verses terrestrial bodies (1 Corinthians 15:40) with reference possibly to sun and moon, etc., but more probably to the bodies of angels in distinction from those of beasts and mortal men (compare Christ's words, Matthew 22:30; Luke 20:36); including also doubtless in the apostle's thought the resurrection-body of Jesus and of the saints already taken-into glory. Light is thrown on its meaning by the rendering of the same Greek original as "heavenly places" (Ephesians 1:3, 20; 2:6; 3:10); "heavenly" (1 Corinthians 15:48). Hence, "celestial" as used by Paul indicates the soul's continued life beyond the grave, the spiritual body of the redeemed in heaven, who, in Christ, have put on immortality.
Dwight M. Pratt
Cellar
Cellar - sel'-er, sel'-ar (krupte; 'otsar): Krupte is found only in Luke 11:33, and is rendered "cellar" in the Revised Version (British and American); the King James Version has "secret place." In this passage it doubtless means a cellar beneath a house. Etymologically the Greek word means "a covered place," and in classical Greek its usage includes vaults and crypts as well as cellars. It seems evident that it was only the larger houses in Palestine in which cellars were used with any frequency. It is shown by the excavations that in rebuilding a town which was in ruins the old houses were sometimes utilized as cellars for the new. 'otsar, is rendered cellar only in 1 Chronicles 27:27 f. It is an erroneous rendering, the correct meaning being stores, or supplies, of wine and oil.
George Ricker Berry
Celosyria
Celosyria - se-lo-sir'-i-a.
See COELE-SYRIA.
Cenchreae
Cenchreae - sen'-kre-e (Kegchreai, Westcott and Hort, The New Testament in Greek Kenchreai; the King James Version incorrectly Cenchrea): A seaport of Corinth on the eastern side of the isthmus (see CORINTH). Here according to Acts 18:18, Paul had his hair shorn before sailing for Syria, since he had a vow. A local church must have been established there by Paul, since Phoebe, the deaconess of Cenchrea, was entrusted with the Epistle to the Romans, and was commended to them in the highest terms by the apostle, who charged them to "assist her in whatsoever matter she may have need" (Romans 16:1-2).
Cendebaeus
Cendebaeus - sen-de-be'-us (Kendebaios; the King James Version Cendebeus): A general of Antiochus VII who was appointed "captain of the seacoast" of Palestine (1 Maccabees 15:38 ff) after the defeat of Tryphon by Antiochus 138 BC. He fortified Kedron and harassed the Jews in various ways. As Simon Maccabeus was too old to attack Cendebaeus in person he sent his two eldest sons, Judas and John, who defeated him with great loss at Modin (1 Maccabees 16:1-10).
Censer
Censer - sen'-ser: In the King James Version censer is used as a translation of two Hebrew words, namely, machtah, and miqTereth. The former word is generally rendered "censer," sometimes "firepan," and in three cases (Exodus 25:38; 37:23; Numbers 4:9) "snuffdish" It denoted a bowl-shaped vessel used for different purposes, namely, (1) a censer, in which incense was burnt (Leviticus 10:1); (2) a firepan, made of bronze, used in connection with the altar of burnt offering (Exodus 27:3); (3) a snuffdish, i.e. a receptacle to hold pieces of burnt lamp-wick removed by the tongs or snuffers (Exodus 25:38). Probably in all these cases the same kind of vessel was meant, namely, a bowl-shaped utensil with a handle, not unlike a saucepan. The other Hebrew word (derived from the same root as the word for "incense") denoted a vessel for conveying incense (Ezekiel 8:11; 2 Chronicles 26:19). The Greek word thumiaterion, by which the Septuagint rendered miqTereth, is used also in Hebrews 9:4, where the King James Version gives "censer," but the American Standard Revised Version is probably more correct, namely, "altar of incense" (see Commentaries under the word). Compare also Revelation 8:3, 1, where libanotos, properly the adjective of "frankincense," is translated "censer."
T. Lewis
Census
Census - sen'-sus.
Centurion
Centurion - sen-tu'-ri-un: As the name implies, hekatontarches or hekatontarchos, kenturion, Latin centurio, was the commander of a hundred men, more or less, in a Roman legion. Matthew and Luke use the Greek word while Mark prefers the Latin form, as he does in the case of other words, seeing that he wrote primarily for Roman readers. The number of centurions in a legion was 60, that being at all epochs the number of centuries, although the number varied in the cohort or speira. The ordinary duties of the centurion were to drill his men, inspect their arms, food and clothing, and to command them in the camp and in the field. Centurions were sometimes employed on detached service the conditions of which in the provinces are somewhat obscure. Men like Cornelius and Julius (Acts 10:1; 27:1) may have been separated from the legion to which they properly belonged for the discharge of special duties. They and other centurions mentioned in the Gospels and the Acts (Matthew 8:5; Mark 15:39, 44-45; Luke 23:47) are represented by the sacred writers in a favorable light.
See AUGUSTAN BAND .
T. Nicol.
Cephas
Cephas - se'-fas.
See PETER ( SIMON).
Ceras
Ceras - se'-ras (Keras; the Revised Version (British and American) KERAS (which see)).
Certain; Certainly; Certainty
Certain; Certainly; Certainty - ser'-tin, ser'-tin-li, ser'tin-ti: The rendering of some Hebrew words and forms expressive of what is definitely settled or determined.
(1) Translation of the Hebrew nakhon, "to be established" or "fixed," as in Deuteronomy 13:14 (Hebrews 15); 17:4; 1 Samuel 23:23 (of Exodus 16:4, "a certain rate every day" the King James Version). In the New Testament it is the rendering of asphales, asphaleia, from "a" privative and sphallein, "to shake" or "move"; as in Luke 1:4, "the certainty of those things" = actual circumstances; Acts 21:34; 22:30; 25:26.
(2) The word "certain" is also employed in the Old Testament to bring out the force of the absolute infinitive form used with the finite verb to express emphasis or to strengthen the idea of the main verb (Kautzsch-Gesenius, Hebrew Grammar, translation Collins-Cowley, 357, 3). Such usage occurs in Genesis 18:10; Joshua 9:24; Leviticus 5:19; 24:16; 1 Samuel 20:3 the King James Version; 1 Kings 2:37; Jeremiah 26:15; 36:29; 19, 22; 44:17.
(3) The word "certain" is also made auxiliary to bring out the force of such expressions as the Hebrew yatsabh, "to be firm," as in Daniel 2:8; also in the New Testament, of the verb astatein as in 1 Corinthians 4:11, "have no certain dwelling-place."
(4) Mention might be made also of "certain" as the rendering of sundry words, as 'akh, in Lamentations 2:16; ki, in Exodus 3:12; and ontos, in Luke 23:47, all being expressions for what is sure, beyond doubt.
W. N. Stearns
Certify
Certify - ser'-ti-fi: Occurs in (1) 2 Samuel 15:28 (haggidh, "to show," "announce," from naghadh); (2) Ezra 4:14, 16; 5:10; 7:24 (hodha`, "to make known," from yedha'; Aramaic for yadha`); (3) Esther 2:22 the King James Version ('amar, "to say," "tell," so the Revised Version (British and American)); and (4) Galatians 1:11 the King James Version gnorizo, "to make to know," so the Revised Version (British and American)). In the English Versions of the Bible, accordingly, the word has not the strong, specific sense of "to make certain," but only the broader sense of "to make to know." Compare Psalms 39:5 (Prayer Book version), "that I may be certified how long I have to live."
Cetab
Cetab - se'-tab.
See KETAB.
Chabris
Chabris - ka'-bris (Abris, Chabreis): Son of Gothoniel, one of the three rulers of Bethulia in the time of Judith (Judith 6:15; 8:10; 10:6).
Chadias, They Of; Chadiasai
Chadias, They Of; Chadiasai - ka'-di-as, ka'-di-a-si; (the Revised Version (British and American) Codex Alexandrinus, Chadasai; Codex Vaticanus, hoi Chadiasai): The inhabitants of the city here referred to returned with Zerubbabel, along with the Ammidioi (1Est 5:20). The name is not found in Ezra and Nehemiah. The Chadiasai have been taken for the people of Kadesh and the Ammidioi for the people of Humtah (Joshua 15:54). Possibly the place is identical with Kedesh of Joshua 15:23.
Chaereas
Chaereas - ke'-re-as (Chaireas; the King James Version Chereas): Brother of Timotheus, the Ammonite leader against Judas Maccabeus (1 Maccabees 5:6). He held the fortress of Gazara (the "Jazer" of 1 Maccabees 5:8) to which Timotheus fled from Judas. The latter pursued him and captured the fortress after a vigorous siege. In the slaughter which followed the two brothers, Chaereas and Timotheus, were killed (2 Maccabees 10:32, 37).
Chafe
Chafe - chaf (mar, "bitter"; hence, bitter of soul, deadly, destructive, ferocious, "as a bear robbed of her whelps"): Occurs only in 2 Samuel 17:8; used by Hushai to characterize David's supposedly fierce mood at the time of Absalom's armed rebellion.
Chaff
Chaff - chaf: Four different words have been translated "chaff" in the Old Testament:
(1) mots, is found in Job 21:18; Psalms 1:4; 35:5; Isaiah 17:13; 29:5; 41:15; Hosea 13:3; Zephaniah 2:2.
(2) chashash, occurs in two verses (Isaiah 5:24 and Isaiah 33:11). Compare "chashish," an Arabic word which, as commonly used, denotes grass either standing or cut, green or dry, although, strictly speaking, dry or cut grass alone. In the Revised Version (British and American) Isaiah 5:24 the translation is "dry grass."
(3) tebhen, is translated "chaff" in the King James Version (Jeremiah 23:28). The same word is rendered "straw" in the Revised Version (British and American) (compare Arabic tibn).
(4) 'ur, a Chaldaic word, occurs in Daniel 2:35.
In the New Testament achuron, is found in Matthew 3:12 and Luke 3:17.
In the process of winnowing, as it has been carried on in the East for thousands of years, the grain is tossed into the air so that the wind may cause a separation of chaff and straw. The light husks from the wheat and fine particles of straw are dispersed by the wind in the form of a fine dust; the heavier straw which has been broken into short pieces by the threshing process falls near at hand on the edge of the threshing-floor, while the grain falls back upon the pile. In Syria and Palestine, that which falls near at hand as cut straw is called tibn. This word occurs in the Arabic translation of Matthew 3:12 and Luke 3:17. This straw is ordinarily saved and fed as "roughage" to the animals. It could easily be gathered and burned, as indicated in the above-mentioned verses, while the chaff is blown away beyond recovery, a strong figure to depict complete annihilation (Job 21:18; Isaiah 29:5; 41:16; Hosea 13:3, Daniel 2:35).
See AGRICULTURE; STRAW; WINNOWING.
JAMES A. Patch
Chain; Chains
Chain; Chains - chan, chanz: Chains were used by the Hebrews:
(1) As ornaments: 'ets`adhah, neTiphah, `anaq, rabhidh, sharsherah, rattoq. As ornaments for the person they were worn about the ankles (Numbers 31:50; Isaiah 3:20) and about the neck (Song of Solomon 4:9; Ezekiel 16:11). They were used as ornaments for the ephod and breastplate of the high priest (Exodus 28:14; 39:15). These chains were of pure gold. Solomon placed chains before the oracle in the temple (1 Kings 6:21), and these were also of pure gold. They were used as ornaments for graven images (Isaiah 40:19) and around the necks of prized animals. This was true of the camels taken from the Midianites by Gideon (Judges 8:21, 26).
(2) As marks of distinction: rabhidh, hamunekh (hamnikh): That seems to be true of the chain which Pharaoh placed about the neck of Joseph (Genesis 41:42), and of the one which the king of Babylon promised to the wise men (Daniel 5:7).
(3) As means of confining prisoners: nechosheth; halusis: A number of passages that were translated "chains" in the King James Version are translated "fetters" in the Revised Version (British and American) (see Judges 16:21; 2 Samuel 3:34). Among the Romans the prisoner was chained to one or two guards (Acts 12:6-7; 21:33; Ephesians 6:20; 2 Timothy 1:16). These chains were perhaps made of copper or an alloy of copper and tin.
(4) As a figurative expression: `anaq. The Psalmist likens pride to a chain about the neck (Psalms 73:6), and in Prov it is stated that the young man who hears the instruction of his father and forsakes not the law of his mother shall find that they are chains about his neck (Psalms 1:6). In Revelation 20:1 the angel is described as descending with a great chain in his hand. According to the King James Version Peter speaks of the fallen angels as having been delivered into "chains of darkness" (2 Peter 2:4), seira, and Jude speaks of them as being reserved in "everlasting chains" (Jude 1:6, the Revised Version (British and American) "bonds"), desmos.
See also PUNISHMENTS.
A. W. Fortune
Chair
Chair - char.
Chalcedony
Chalcedony - kal-sed'-o-ni, kal'-se-do-ni.
Chalcol
Chalcol - kal'-kol.
See CALCOL.
Chaldea; Chaldeans
Chaldea; Chaldeans - kal-de'-a, kal-de'-anz (kasdim, 'erets kasdim; Chaldaia, Chaldaioi):
1. Geographical Position
Seats of the Chaldeans
2. Originally Sumero-Akkadian
3. History of the Chaldean Tribes
4. Merodach-baladan and Sargon of Assyria
5. Suzubu
6. Musezib-Marduk
7. Merodach-baladan's Son
8. Na'id-Marduk
9. Palia
10. Nabu-bel-sumati and Others
His Tragic End
11. The Chaldeans Forge Ahead
12. Nabopolassar's Revolt against Assyria
13. The Chaldeans as Learned Men
"Kasdim," "land of Kasdim" or "the Chaldeans," is the usual designation, in the Old Testament, for the land and the people (Jeremiah 50:10; 51:24; 24:5; 25:12). The corresponding Greek form with l for s follows the Assyr-Bab Kaldu, mat Kaldi, "Chaldean, land of the Chaldeans." Kasdim is possibly connected with the name of Kesed (Kesedh), nephew of Abraham (Genesis 22:22), and may be derived from the Assyr-Bab root kasadu, "to capture," suggesting that the Chaldeans were originally tribes of nomadic plunderers (compare Job 1:17).
1. Geographical Position: Seats of the Chaldeans:
In its widest acceptation, Chaldea is the name of the whole of Babylonia, owing to the fact that the Chaldeans had given more than one king to the country. In the strict sense, however, their domain was the tract at the Northwest end of the Persian Gulf, which was often called by the Assyro-Babylonians mat Tamtim, "the Land of the Sea," a province of unknown extent. When these tribes migrated into Babylonia is uncertain, as is also their original home; but as they are closely related to the Arameans, it is possible that their first settlements lay in the neighborhood of the Aramean states bordering on the Holy Land. Tiglath-pileser IV (742 BC) speaks of the ra'asani or chiefs of the Kaldu, and the mention of numerous Aramean tribes in Babylonia itself shows that their example of settling there soon found imitators, as did the Anglo-Saxons when they invaded Britain. Among the Chaldean tribes in Babylonia may be mentioned Bit Amukkani, whose capital was Sapia; Bit Yakin which furnished the dynasty to which Merodach-baladan II belonged; and probably also Bit Dakkuri, as all three lay near the Persian Gulf. Sargon of Assyria excludes Bit-Amukkani and Bit-Dakkuri, and speaks of "the whole of the land of Chaldea, as much as there is; the land of Bit-Yakini, on the shore of the Salt River (the Persian Gulf), to the border of Tilmun" (the island of Bahrein and the adjacent mainland) (Pavement Inscr., IV, ll. 82, 83, 85, 86). It was probably the influence of theBabylonians among whom they settled which changed these nomads into city-dwellers. Sennacherib refers to 75 (var. 89) strong cities and fortresses of Chaldea, and 420 (var. 800) smaller towns which were around them; and there were also Chaldeans (and Arameans) in Erech, Nippur (Calneh), Kis, Hursag-kalama, Cuthah, and probably Babylon.
2. Originally Sumero-Akkadian: The "land of the sea" (mat Tamtim)is mentioned in the chronicle of the early Babylonian kings (Revelation 14) as being governed by Ea-gamil, contemporary of Samsu-Titana (circa 1900 BC), but at that period it was apparently one of the original Sumero-Akkadian states of Babylonia. It is doubtful whether, at that early date, the Chaldeans had entered Babylonia and founded settlements there, though the record mentions Arameans somewhat later on.
3. History of the Chaldean Tribes: One of the earliest references to the Chaldeans is that of Shalmaneser II of Assyria, who, on invading Babylonia in the eponymy of Belbunaya (851 BC), captured the city Baqani, which belonged to Adini of the Chaldean tribe of Dakuri. After plundering and destroying the place, Shalmaneser attacked Enzudi, the capital, whereupon Adini submitted and paid tribute. On this occasion Yakini of "the Land of the Sea," also paid tribute, as did Musallim-Marduk, son of Amukkani (the Bit-Amukkani mentioned above). The next Assyrian ruler to mention the country is Adadnirari III (810 BC), who speaks of all the kings of the Chaldeans, which evidently refers to the various states into which the Chaldean tribes were divided. Later on, Sargon of Assyria, in his 12th year, decided to break the power of Merodach-baladan, who had made himself master of Babylon. To effect this, he first defeated the Gambulians, who were the Chaldean king's supporters, and the Elamites, his allies over the border. The Chaldean, however, did not await the Assyrian king's attack, but escaped to Yatburu in Elam, leaving considerable spoil behind him.
4. Merodach-baladan and Sargon of Assyria: Though extensive operations were carried out, and much booty taken, the end of the campaign seems only to have come two years later, when Dur-Yakin was destroyed by fire and reduced to ruins. In the "Annals of Hall XIV" Sargon claims to have taken Merodach-baladan prisoner, but this seems doubtful. Merodach-baladan fled, but returned and mounted the throne again on Sargon's death in 705 BC. Six months later Sennacherib, in his turn, attacked him, and he again sought safety in flight.
5. Suzubu: A Chaldean chief named Suzubu, however, now came forward, and proclaimed himself king of Babylon, but being defeated, he likewise fled. Later on, Sennacherib attacked the Chaldeans at Nagitu and other settlements in Elamite-territory which Merodach-baladan and his followers had founded.
6. Musezib-Marduk: After the death of Merodach-baladan, yet another Chaldean, whom Sennacherib calls likewise Suzubu, but whose full name was Musezib-Marduk, mounted the Babylonian throne. This ruler applied for help against Sennacherib of Assyria to Umman-menanu, the king of Elam, who, taking the bribe which was offered, supported him with an armed force, and a battle was fought at Chalule on the Tigris, in which Sennacherib claims the victory--probably rightly. Musezib-Marduk reigned 4 years, and was taken prisoner by his whilom ally, Umman-menanu, who sent him to Assyria.
7. Merodach-baladan's Son: In the reign of Esarhaddon, Nabu-zer-napistilisir, one of the sons of Merodach-baladan, gathered an army at Larsa, but was defeated by the Assyrians, and fled to Elam. The king of that country, however, wishing to be on friendly terms with Esarhaddon, captured him and put him to death.
8. Na'id-Marduk: This prince had a brother named Na'id-Marduk, who, not feeling himself safe in the country which had acted treacherously toward his house, fled, and made submission to Esarhaddon, who received him favorably, and restored to him the dominion of the "Land of the Sea." This moderation secured the fidelity of the Chaldeans, and when the Elamite Urtaku sent inviting them to revolt against their suzerain, they answered to the effect that Na'id-Marduk was their lord, and they were the servants of the king of Assyria. This took place probably about 650 BC, in the reign of Esarhaddon's son Assur-bani-apli (see OSNAPPAR).
9. Palia: Hostility to Assyria, however, continued to exist in the tribe, Palia, grandson of Merodach-baladan, being one of the prisoners taken by Assur-bani-apli's troops in their operations against the Gambulians (a Babylonian, and perhaps a Chaldean tribe) later on. It was only during the struggle of Samas-sumukin (Saosduchimos), king of Babylon, Assur-banl-apli's brother, however, that they took sides against Assyria as a nationality. This change was due to the invitation of the Babylonian king--who may have been regarded, rather than Assur-bani-apli, as their overlord.
10. Nabu-bel-sumati: The chief of the Chaldeans was at that time another grandson of Merodach-baladan, Nabu-bel-sumati, who seized the Assyrians in his domain, and placed them in bonds. The Chaldeans suffered, with the rest, in the great defeat of the Babylonian and allied forces, when Babylon and the chief cities of the land fell. Mannu-ki-Babili of the Dakkurians, Ea-sum-ikisa of Bit-Amukkani, with other Chaldean states, were punished for their complicity in Samas-sum-ukin's revolt, while Nabu-bel-sumati fled and found refuge at the court of Indabigas, king of Elam. Assur-bani-apli at once demanded his surrender, but civil war in Elam broke out, in which Indabigas was slain, and Ummanaldas mounted the throne.
His Tragic End:
This demand was now renewed, and Nabu-bel-sumati, fearing that he would be surrendered, decided to end his life. He therefore directed his armor-bearer to dispatch him, and each ran the other through with his sword. The prince's corpse, with the head of his armor-bearer, were then sent, with some of the Chaldean fugitives, to Assyria, and presented to the king. Thus ended, for a time, Chaldean ambition in Babylonia and in the domain of eastern politics.
11. The Chaldeans Forge Ahead: With the death of Assur-bani-apli, which took place about 626 BC, the power of Assyria fell, his successors being probably far less capable men than he. This gave occasion for many plots against the Assyrian empire, and the Chaldeans probably took part in the general movement. In the time of Saracus (Sin-sarra-iskun of Assyria, circa 620 BC) Busalossor would seem to have been appointed general of the forces in Babylonia in consequence of an apprehended invasion of barbarians from the sea (the Persian Gulf) (Eusebius, Chronicon, book i).
12. Nabopolassar's Revolt against Assyria: The new general, however, revolted against the Assyrians, and made himself master of Babylonia. As, in other cases, the Assyrians seem to have been exceedingly faithful to their king, it has been thought possible that this general, who was none other than Nabopolassar, the father of Nebuchadpolassar's rezzar, was not really an Assyrian, but a Babylonian, and probably a Chaldean. This theory; if correct, would explain how Babylonia, in its fullest sense, obtained the name of Chaldea, and was no longer known as the land of Shinar (Genesis 10:10). The reputation of Merodach-baladan, the contemporary of Hezekiah, may have been partly responsible for the change of name.
13. The Chaldeans as Learned Men: It was not in the restricted sense, but as a synonym of Babylonian, that the name Chaldean obtained the signification of "wise man." That the Chaldeans in the restricted and correct sense were more learned than, or even as learned as, the Babylonians in general, is unlikely. Moreover, the native inscriptions give no indication that this was the case. The Babylonians in general, on the other
hand, were enthusiastic students from very early times. From their inscriptions, it is certain that among their centers of learning may be classed Sippar and Larsa, the chief seats of sun-worship; Nippur, identified with the Calneh of Genesis 10:10; Babylon, the capital; Borsippa in the neighborhood of Babylon; Ur of the Chaldees; and Erech. There is, also, every probability that this list could be extended, and will be extended, when we know more; for wherever an important temple existed, there was to be found also a priestly school. "The learning of the Chaldeans" (Daniel 1:4; 2:2; 4:7; 7, 11) comprised the old languages of Babylonia (the two dialects of Sumerian, with a certain knowledge of Kassite, which seems to have been allied to the Hittite; and other languages of the immediate neighborhood); some knowledge of astronomy and astrology; mathematics, which their sexagesimal system of numeration seems to have facilitated; and a certain amount of natural history. To this must be added a store of mythological learning, including legends of the Creation, the Flood (closely resembling in all its main points the account in the Bible), and apparently also the Temptation and the Fall. They had likewise a good knowledge of agriculture, and were no mean architects, as the many celebrated buildings of Babylonia show--compare not only the descriptions of the Temple of Belus (see BABEL, TOWER OF) and the Hanging Gardens, but also the remains of Gudea's great palace at Lagas (Tel-loh), where that ruler, who lived about 2500BC , is twice represented as an architect, with plan and with rule and measure. (These statues are now in the Louvre.) That their architecture never attained the elegance which characterized that of the West, is probably due to the absence of stone, necessitating the employment of brick as a substitute (Genesis 11:3).
T. G. Pinches
Chalkstone
Chalkstone - chok'-ston ('abhneghir (compare Eben-ezer, 'ebhen ha-`ezer, "stone of the help," 1 Samuel 7:12)): In Isaiah 27:9 we have: "Therefore by this shall the iniquity of Jacob be forgiven, and this is all the fruit of taking away his sin: that he maketh all the stones of the altar as chalkstones that are beaten in sunder, so that the Asherim and the sun-images shall rise no more." 'Abhne-ghir is compounded of 'ebhen, "stone," which occurs in many passages, and gir or gir, "lime" (compare Arabic jir , "gypsum" or "quicklime"), which occurs only here and in Daniel 5:5: "wrote .... upon the plaster (gir) of the wall of the king's palace." Nearly all the rock of Palestine is limestone. When limestone is burned, it is converted into lime, which is easily broken into pieces, and, if allowed to remain open to the air, becomes slaked by the moisture of the atmosphere and crumbles into dust. The reference is to the destruction of the altar. It may mean that the altar will be burned so that the stones will become lime, or, more probably, that the stones of the altar will be broken as chalkstones (i.e. lumps of quicklime) are broken. There is no doubt that lime was known to the Egyptians, Assyrians and Hebrews, though clay, with or without straw, was more commonly used in building. Even bitumen ("slime") appears to have been used for mortar.
Alfred Ely Day
Challenge
Challenge - chal'-enj: Only in Exodus 22:9, where the King James Version has taken Hebrew 'amar, "say," in the sense of "claim." the Revised Version (British and American) "whereof one saith, This is it," points more definitely to the idea of identification of the stolen personal property.
Chalphi
Chalphi - kal'-fi (Chalphi; the King James Version Calphi): Father of Judas, who, along with Mattathias, steadily supported Jonathan at the battle of Gennesar when the hosts of Demetrius' princes were routed (1 Maccabees 11:70).
Chamber
Chamber - cham'-ber (the translation of the following Hebrew words: chedher, chuppah, yatsia`, yatsua`, lishkah, nishkah, `aliyah, tsela`, and the Aramaic word `illith): For the most part the word chamber is the expression of an idea which would be adequately expressed by the English word "room," in accordance with an earlier use of the word, now little employed. For the arrangement of rooms in a Hebrew house, see HOUSE. Chedher is a word of frequent occurrence, and designates a private room. Chuppah is translated "chamber" only in Psalms 19:5, where it is used in connection with "bridegroom," and means a bridal chamber. The same Hebrew word used of the bride in Joel 2:16 is rendered "closet." Yatsia` and yatsua` are found only in 1 Kings 6:5-6, 10 (the King James Version only in all the passages), yatsua` being the reading of Kethibh and yatsia` of Kere in each ease. Here the meaning is really "story," as given in the Revised Version (British and American), except in 1 Kings 6:6, where doubtless the text should be changed to read ha-tsela`, "the side-chamber." Lishkah, a frequent word, and the equivalent nishkah, infrequent, are used ordinarily of a room in the temple utilized for sacred purposes, occasionally of a room in the palace. `Aliyah and the equivalent Aramaic `illith signify "a roof chamber," i.e. a chamber built on the flat roof of a house. Tsela`, when used of a chamber, designates a side-chamber of the temple. It is usually rendered "side-chamber," but "chamber" in 1 Kings 6:5, 8 (the King James Version), where the Revised Version (British and American) has "side-chamber."
George Ricker Berry
Chamber, Roof
Chamber, Roof - See CHAMBER.
Chambering
Chambering - cham'-ber-ing: Illicit intercourse; the rendering in English Versions of the Bible since Tyndale of koitias (literally "beds," Romans 13:13). The Greek usage is paralleled in classic authors and the Septuagint; like the English participle, it denotes repeated or habitual acts. The word is not recorded elsewhere in English literature as verb or participle in this sense; in Othello, iii, 3, a chamberer is an intriguer, male wanton, in Byron, Werner, IV, 1, 404, a gallant or carpet knight, and in Chaucer, Clerk's Tale, 766, a concubine.
Chamberlain
Chamberlain - cham'-ber-lin: In the Old Testament the word rendered chamberlain, caric, is more properly "eunuch," an officer which oriental monarchs placed over their harems (Esther 1:10, 12, 15; 3, 14, 21; 4:4 f; Esther 6:2, 14; 7:9; 2 Kings 23:11). This officer seems also to have had other duties. See under EUNUCH. In the New Testament (1) oikonomos, literally manager of the household, apparently the "treasurer" as in the Revised Version (British and American) "Erastus the treasurer of the city saluteth you" (Romans 16:23). Compare adapted use as applied to Christian apostles and teachers, bishops, and even to individual members; in which cases, rendered "stewards" (1 Corinthians 4:1; Titus 1:7; 1 Peter 4:10). (2) In Acts 12:20, "Blastus the king's chamberlain" (ho epi toa koitonos tou basileos, "he who is over the king's bed-chamber"), not treasure-chamber, as above; here praefectus cubiculo, or chief valet de chambre to the royal person, a position involving much honor and intimacy.
Edward Bagby Pollard
Chambers in the Heavens
Chambers in the Heavens - See ASTRONOMY; DIAL OF AHAZ.
Chambers in the South
Chambers in the South - See ASTRONOMY; SOUTH,CHAMBERS OF THE .
Chambers of Imagery
Chambers of Imagery - im'-aj-ri, im'-a-jer-i (maskith): The reference (Ezekiel 8:12) is to chambers in the temple where the elders of Israel were wont to assemble and practice rites of an idolatrous character. What the imagery consisted of, we may gather from Ezekiel 8:10: symbolic representations of beasts and reptiles and "detestable things." It is thought that these symbols were of a zodiacal character. The worship of the planets was in vogue at the time of the prophet among the degenerate Israelites.
Chameleon
Chameleon - ka-me'-le-un (koach, the Revised Version (British and American) LAND CROCODILE (Leviticus 11:30); tinshemeth, the King James Version mole, the Revised Version (British and American) CHAMELEON (Leviticus 11:30)):
Koach, which in the King James Version is rendered "chameleon" and in the Revised Version (British and American) "land crocodile," means also "strength" or "power," as in Genesis 4:12; 1 Samuel 2:9; Psalms 22:15; Isaiah 40:29, and many other passages. The Septuagint has chamaileon, but on account of the ordinary meaning of the word, koach, it has been thought that some large lizard should be understood here. The desert monitor, Varanus griseus, one of the largest of lizards, sometime attaining the length of 4 ft., is common in Palestine and may be the animal here referred to. The name "monitor" is a translation of the German warnen, "to warn," with which has been confused the Arabic name of this animal, waran or waral, a word of uncertain etymology.
The word tinshemeth in the same verse is rendered in the King James Version "mole" and in the Revised Version (British and American) "chameleon." The Septuagint has aspalax (= spalax, "mole"). Tinshemeth also occurs in the lists of unclean birds in Leviticus 11:18 and Deuteronomy 14:16, where it is rendered: the King James Version "swan"; the Revised Version (British and American) "horned owl"; Septuagint porphurion (i.e. "coot" or, according to some, "heron"); Vulgate (Jerome's Latin Bible, 390-405 A.D.) cygnus, "swan." It appears to come from the root nasham, "to breathe"; compare neshamah, "breath" (Genesis 2:7; Job 27:3 the King James Version, etc.). It has therefore in Leviticus 11:30 been referred to the chameleon on account of the chameleon's habit of puffing up its body with air and hissing, and in the other passages to the pelican, on account of the pelican's great pouched bill.
The common chameleon is abundant in Palestine, being found also in North Africa and in Spain. The other species of chameleons are found principally in Africa and Madagascar. It is not only a harmless but a decidedly useful creature, since it feeds upon insects, especially flies. Its mode of capturing its prey is most interesting. It slowly and cautiously advances until its head is from 4 to 6 inches from the insect, which it then secures by darting out its tongue with great rapidity. The pigment cel ls in its skin enable it to change its color from pale yellow to bright green, dark green and almost black, so that it can harmonize very perfectly with its surroundings. Its peculiar toes and prehensile tail help to fit it for its life in the trees. Its prominent eyes with circular lids, like iris diaphragms can be moved independently of each other, and add to its striking appearance.
See LAND-CROCODILE ; MOLE; SWAN; OWL; PELICAN.
Alfred Ely Day
Chamois
Chamois - sham'-i, sha-mwa', sha-moi' (zemer; kamelopdrdalis): Occurs only once in the Bible, i.e. in the list of clean animals in Deuteronomy 14:5. Gesenius refers to the verb zamar, "to sing," and suggests the association of dancing or leaping, indicating thereby an active animal. M'Lean in Encyclopedia Biblica cites the rendering of the Targums dica', or "wild goat." Now there are two wild goats in Palestine. The better known is the ibex of the South, which may well be the ya`el (English Versions, "wild goat"; Job 39:1; Psalms 104:18; 1 Samuel 24:2), as well as the 'aqqo (English Version, "wild goat," Deuteronomy 14:5). The other is the pasang or Persian wild goat which ranges from the Northeast of Palestine and the Syrian desert to Persia, and which may be the zemer (English Versions "chamois"). The accompanying illustration, which is taken from the Royal Natural History, shows the male and female and young. The male is distinguished by its larger horns and goatee. The horns are in size and curvature very similar to those of the ibex (see GOAT, section 2) , but the front edge is like a nicked blade instead of being thick and knotty as in the ibex. Like the ibex it is at home among the rocks, and climbs apparently impossible cliffs with marvelous ease.
Tristram (NHB) who is followed by Post (HDB) suggests that zemer may be the Barbary sheep (Ovis tragelaphus), though the latter is only known to inhabit the Atlas Mountains, from the Atlantic to Tunis. Tristram supports his view by reference to a kebsh ("ram") which the Arabs say lives in the mountains of Sinai, though they have apparently neither horns nor skins to show as trophies, and it is admitted that no European has seen it. The true chamois (Rupicapra tragus) inhabits the high mountains from t he Pyrenees to the Caucasus, and there is no reason to suppose that it was ever found in Syria or Palestine.
Alfred Ely Day
Champaign
Champaign - sham-pan', sham'-pan (`arabhah, biq`ah): A champaign is a flat open country, and the word occurs in Deuteronomy 11:30 the King James Version (the Revised Version (British and American) "the Arabah") as a translation of `arabhah, for which the King James Version has in most places "the plain," and the Revised Version (British and American) "the Arabah," when it is used with the article and denotes a definite region, i.e. the valley of the Jordan from the Sea of Galilee to the Dead Sea (Deuteronomy 2:8; 3:17; 4:4:Deuteronomy 9:1-29; Joshua 3:16; 8:14; 11:16; 1, 3, 1; 2 Samuel 2:29; 4:7; 2 Kings 14:25; 25:4; Jeremiah 39:4; 52:7), and also the valley running southward from the Dead Sea to the Gulf of Akabah (Deuteronomy 1:1). Ezekiel 47:8 has for ha-`arabhah "the desert," the King James Version margin"plain," the Revised Version (British and American) "the Arabah." The plural is used in Joshua 5:10; 2 Kings 25:5, "the plains of Jericho," and in Numbers 22:1 and Numbers 26:3, "the plains of Moab." Elsewhere `arabhah is rendered in English Versions of the Bible "desert" or "wilderness" (Job 24:5; 39:6; Isaiah 33:9; 1, 6; 40:3; 41:19; 51:3; Jeremiah 2:6; 17:6; 50:12). At the present day, the Jordan va lley is called the Ghaur (compare Hebrew `ur, "to dig," me`arah, "cave," and Arabic magharah, "cave"). This name is also applied to the deltas of streams flowing into the Dead Sea from the East, which are clothed with thickets of thorny trees and shrubs, i.e. Ghaur-ul-Mezra`ah, at the mouths of Wadi-Kerak and Wadi-Beni-Chammad, Ghaur-uc-Cafiyeh, at the mouth of Wadi-ul-Hisa. The name "Arabah" (Arabic al-`Arabah) is now confined to the valley running southward from the Dead Sea to the Gulf of Akabah, separating the mountains of Edom from Sinai and the plateau of at-Tih.
See ARABAH.
Ezekiel 37:2 the King James Version margin has "champaign" for biq`ah, which is elsewhere rendered "vale" or "valley." Biq`ah seems to be applied to wide, open valleys, as: "the valley of Jericho" (Deuteronomy 34:3), "the valley of Megiddo" (2 Chronicles 35:22; Zechariah 12:11), "the valley of Lebanon" (Joshua 11:17). If Baal-Gad be Ba`albeq and "the valley of Lebanon" be Coele-syria, the present name of Coele-syria, al-Biqa` (plural of buq`ah, "a low, wet place or meadow"), may be regarded as a survival of the Hebre w biq`ah.
Alfred Ely Day
Champion
Champion - cham'-pi-un ('ish habenayim): In 1 Samuel 17:4, 23 this unusual expression occurs in the description of Goliath. It means literally "the man of the two spaces," "spaces," or "space between," and is perhaps to be explained by the fact that there was a brook flowing through the valley separating the two armies. In 1 Samuel 17:51 the word champion is the rendering of the Hebrew gibbor, "mighty man."
Chanaan; Chanaanite
Chanaan; Chanaanite - ka'-nan, ka'-na-an, ka'-nan-it (Chanaan), the King James Version in the Apocrypha (Judith 5:3, 16) and New Testament (Acts 7:11; 13:19) for the Revised Version (British and American) CANAAN, CANAANITE (which see).
Chance
Chance - chans: The idea of chance in the sense of something wholly fortuitous was utterly foreign to the Hebrew creed. Throughout the whole course of Israel's history, to the Hebrew mind, law, not chance, ruled the universe, and that law was not something blindly mechanical, but the expression of the personal Yahweh. Israel's belief upon this subject may be summed up in the couplet,
"The lot is cast into the lap;
But the whole disposing thereof is of Yahweh" (Proverbs 16:33).
A number of Hebrew and Greek expressions have been translated "chance," or something nearly equivalent, but it is noteworthy that of the classical words for chance, suntuchia, and tuche, the former never occurs in the Bible and the latter only twice in the Septuagint.
The closest approach to the idea of chance is found in the statement of the Philistines that if their device for ascertaining the cause of their calamities turned out a certain way they would call them a chance, that is, bad luck (miqreh, 1 Samuel 6:9). But note that it was a heathen people who said this. We have the same Hebrew noun and the verb, from which the noun is taken, a number of times, but variously rendered into English: Uncleanness that "chanceth him by night" (Deuteronomy 23:10). "Her hap was to ligh t on the portion of the field" (Ruth 2:3). "Something hath befallen him" (1 Samuel 20:26). "One event happeneth to them all" (Ecclesiastes 2:14-15); "that which befalleth the sons of men" ("sons of men are a chance," the English Revised Version, margin) (Ecclesiastes 3:19). "There is one event to the righteous and to the wicked" (Ecclesiastes 9:2-3). Here the idea certainly is not something independent of the will of God, but something unexpected by man.
There is also qara', "If a bird's nest chance to be before thee in the way" (Deuteronomy 22:6). Both the above Hebrew words are combined in the statement "As I happened by chance upon Mount Gilboa" (2 Samuel 1:6). "And Absalom chanced to meet the servants of David" ("met the servants," 2 Samuel 18:9, the King James Version). "And there happened to be there a base fellow" (2 Samuel 20:1).
We have also pegha`, "Time and chance happeneth to them all," meaning simply occurrence (Ecclesiastes 9:11). "Neither adversary, nor evil occurrence" (1 Kings 5:4).
In the New Testament we have sugkuria, "coincidence," a meeting apparently accidental, a coincidence. "By chance a certain priest was going down that way" (Luke 10:31). Also ei tuchoi. "It may chance of wheat, or of some other kind," i.e. we cannot tell which (1 Corinthians 15:37). "It may be" (1 Corinthians 14:10).
If we look at the Septuagint we find tuche used twice. "And Leah said, (En tuche) With fortune" ("a troop cometh," the King James Version; "fortunate," the Revised Version (British and American); "with fortune," the Revised Version, margin, Genesis 30:11). Note, it was no Israelite, but who said this. "That prepare a table for Fortune, and that fill up mingled wine unto Destiny" ("fate," Isaiah 65:11). In this passage tuche stands or the Hebrew meni, the god of destiny, and Fortune is for Gad, the old Semitic name for the god of fortune found in inscriptions, private names, etc. Note here, however, also, that the prophet was rebuking idolatrous ones for apostasy to heathen divinities.
We have also in the Apocrypha, "these things which have chanced," the Revised Version (British and American) "to be opened unto thee" (2 Esdras 10:49).
George Henry Trever
Chancellor
Chancellor - chan'-sel-er: The rendering in Ezra 4:8-9, 17 of the Hebrew be`el Te`em; Septuagint Baal (4:9), Balgam (4:17), the latter being an incorrect translation of Hebrew `ayin. In 1 Esdras 2:16, 25, Beeltethmos (compare Ezra 4:8) occurs as a corruption, doubtless of be`el Te`em. The term in question designates an Assyrian office, namely, that of the "master or lord of official intelligence," or "postmaster" (Sayce).
Change
Change - chanj: A word which seeks to express the many shades of meaning contained in 13 variations of 9 Hebrew words and 5 Greek. These signify, in turn, "to change" "to exchange," "to turn," "to put or place," "to make other" i.e. "alter," "to disguise oneself." chalaph, and its derivatives, occuring often, indicates "to pass away," hence, alter, renew, e.g. (1) "changes of raiment" (Genesis 45:22; Judges 14:12-13, 19); (2) "changed my wages ten times" (Genesis 31:7, 41); (3) heavens changed "as a vesture" (Psalms 102:26); (4) "changes and warfare" (Job 10:17), i.e. relays of soldiers as illustrated in 1 Kings 5:14 (the Revised Version, margin "host after host is against me"); (5) "till my change come" (the Revised Version (British and American) "release"), i.e. death (Job 14:14); (6) "changed the ordinances" (the American Standard Revised Version "violated the statutes"), i.e. disregarded law (Isaiah 24:5); (7) change of mind (Habakkuk 1:11 the King James Version). Used also of change of character, haphakh: (1) of leprosy, "changed unto white" (Leviticus 13:16); (2) figuratively of the moral life, "Can the Ethiopian change his skin?" (Jeremiah 13:23); so also mur, and derivatives, "changed their gods" and "their glory," etc. (Psalms 106:20; Jeremiah 2:11; Hosea 4:7). Other words used to indicate change of name (2 Kings 24:17); of day and night (Job 17:12); of times and seasons (Daniel 2:21); of countenance. (Daniel 7:28); of behavior (1 Samuel 21:13); God's unchangeableness, "I, Yahweh, change not" (Malachi 3:6).
In the New Testament the word has to do chiefly with spiritual realities: (1) metatithemi, of the necessary change of the priesthood and law under Christ (Hebrews 7:12); (2) allatto, of His changing the customs of Moses (Acts 6:14); (3) of moral change, e.g. debasement (Romans 1:23, 25-26); (4) of bodily change at the resurrection (1 Corinthians 15:51-52; metaschematizo, Philippians 3:21 the King James Version); (5) metaballo, of change of mind in presence of a miracle (Acts 28:6); (6) of the change to come over the heavens at the great day of the Lord (Hebrews 1:12; compare 2 Peter 3:10, 12).
Figurative uses indicated separately in the course of the article.
Dwight M. Pratt
Change of Raiment
Change of Raiment - ra'-ment.
See DRESS.
Changer
Changer - chan'-jer (kollubistes, "money-changer," and so rendered Matthew 21:12; Mark 11:15): A banker or other person who changes money at a fixed rate. Indignant at the profane traffic in the temple Jesus "poured out the changers' money" (John 2:15). So used only here. For fuller treatment see BANK; MONEY-CHANGERS.
Channel
Channel - chan'-el ('aphiq (root 'aphaq, "to hold or contain," "to be strong"; compare Arabic 'afaq "to overcome" and 'afiq, "preeminent"); shibboleth (shabhal, "to go," "to go up or grow," "to flow"; compare Arabic 'asbal, "to flow," "to rain," "to put forth ears"; sabalat, "an ear of grain"; sabil, "a road," "a public fountain")): In Job 12:21; 40:18; 41:15 we have 'aphiq in the sense of "strong" (but compare Job 40:18, the Revised Version (British and American) "tubes" (of brass)). Elsewhere it is translated "river," "brook," "stream," "channel" or "watercourse." Shibboleth (in the dialect of Ephraim cibboleth (Judges 12:6)) means "an ear of grain" (Genesis 41:5 ff; Ruth 2:2; Isaiah 17:5) or "a flood of water" (Psalms 69:2, 15; Isaiah 27:12). In 2 Samuel 22:16 (compare Psalms 18:15) we have:
"Then the channels of the sea appeared,
The foundations of the world were laid bare,
By the rebuke of Yahweh,
At the blast of the breath of his nostrils."
This is reminiscent of "fountains of the deep" (Genesis 7:11; 8:2; Proverbs 8:28). It is a question how far we should attribute to these ancient writers a share in modern notions of oceanography, but the idea seems to be that of a withdrawal of the water of the ocean, and the laying bare of submarine declivities and channels such as we know to exist as the result of erosion during a previous period of elevation, when the given portion of ocean floor was dry land.
The fact that many streams of Palestine flow only during the rainy season seems to be referred to in Job 6:15; and perhaps also in Psalms 126:4.
Alfred Ely Day
Chant
Chant - (paraT): Occurs only once in the King James Version in Amos 6:5, and the meaning of the Hebrew is uncertain. ParaT corresponds to an Arabic root meaning to anticipate. It may therefore signify to improvise, to sing without care or preparation. the Revised Version (British and American) "to sing idle songs" suits the context. See Driver, Joel and Amos.
Chanuneus
Chanuneus - ka-nun'-e-us (Chanounaios; the King James Version Channuneus): A Levite in the list of 1 Esdras 8:48, probably corresponding to "Merari" in Ezra 8:19.
Chapel
Chapel - chap'-el (miqdash, "a holy place"; the Revised Version (British and American) SANCTUARY, which see): "It is the king's chapel" (Amos 7:13 the King James Version), an expression indicative of the dependence of this sanctuary on the court.
Chaphenatha
Chaphenatha - ka-fen'-a-tha (Chaphenatha; the King James Version Caphenatha): A name apparently given to part of the eastern wall of Jerusalem or a fort in that neighborhood which is said (1 Maccabees 12:37) to have been repaired by Jonathan Maccabeus. The place cannot now be identified. Various speculations have been made as to the origin of the name, but they can hardly be said to throw any light on the passage cited.
Chapiter
Chapiter - chap'-i-ter.
See ARCHITECTURE; JACHIN AND BOAZ; TEMPLE,II , 4.
Chapman
Chapman - chap'-man (plural 'anshe ha-tarim): Word used only once in the King James Version (2 Chronicles 9:14, the American Standard Revised Version "the traders"; compare also 1 Kings 10:15 the Revised Version (British and American), where the Hebrew uses the same expression). The English word means "merchant"; compare the verb "to chaffer," and the German Kaufmann. The Hebrew means "those who go about" as merchants.
Chapt
Chapt - (chathath): The Hebrew term chathath means "broken," "terrified" or "dismayed." This term as it occurs in Jeremiah 14:4 is rendered "chapt" in English Versions of the Bible, "cracked" in the American Standard Revised Version, and "dismayed" in the Revised Version, margin. Inasmuch as the Hebrew term means "broken," it is not incorrectly rendered "chapt" or "chapped," which means to be cracked Open.
Charaathalan
Charaathalan - kar-a-ath'-a-lan (Charaathalan; the King James Version Charaathalar (1 Esdras 5:36)): Most probably a corruption of the text. The names "Cherub, Addan, and Immer" in the lists of Ezra 2:59 and Nehemiah 7:61 are presented in the text cited as "Charaathalan leading them, and Allar."
Characa
Characa - kar'-a-ka.
See CHARAX.
Charashim
Charashim - kar'-a-shim (charashim, "craftsmen").
See GE-HARASHIM.
Charax; Characa
Charax; Characa - kar'-ax, kar'-a-ka; (eis ton Charaka; the King James Version Charax): A place mentioned only in 2 Maccabees 12:17. It lay East of the Jordan and is said to be 750 stadia from Caspis, and to be inhabited by Jews called Tubieni, that is, of Tobie (Tob) in Gilead (1 Maccabees 5:9, 13; 2 Maccabees 12:17). There is no clue as to the direction in which Ch. lay from Caspis. Possibly Kerak (Kir-moab), in post-Biblical times called Charamoba and Moboucharax, may represent the place. It lay about 100 miles South of el-Mezerib, Southeast of the Dead Sea.
Charchemish
Charchemish - kar'-ke-mish.
See CARCHEMISH.
Charchus
Charchus - kar'-kus.
See BARCHUS.
Charea
Charea - kar'-re-a (Charea): Head of a family of temple-servants (1 Esdras 5:32); called "Harsha" in Ezra 2:52; Nehemiah 7:54.
Charge; Chargeable
Charge; Chargeable - charj, char'-ja-b'-l (from Latin carrus, "a wagon," hence, "to lay or put a load on or in," "to burden, or be a burden"):
Figurative: (1) of a special duty mishmereth, "thing to be watched"), "the charge of Yahweh" (Leviticus 8:35), the injunctions given in Exodus 29:1-46; "the charge of the tabernacle" (Numbers 1:53); "the charge of the sons of Getshon" (Numbers 3:25); (2) of the burden of expense (kabhedh, "to be, or make heavy"; adapanos, "without expense"), "lest we be chargeable unto thee" (2 Samuel 13:25 the King James Version, the Revised Version (British and American) "burdensome"); "The former governors .... were charge unto the people" (Nehemiah 5:15 margin "laid burdens upon"); "that .... I may make the gospel without charge" (1 Corinthians 9:18; see CHARGES); (3) of oversight, care, custody, "Who gave him a charge over the earth?" (Job 34:13); "to have the charge of the gate" (2 Kings 7:17); "charge of the vessels of service" (1 Chronicles 9:28); "cause ye them that have charge (pequddoth, "inspectors") over the city" (Ezekiel 9:1); "who had the charge of all her treasure" (Acts 8:27 the King James Version, the Revised Version (British and American) "was over"); (4) of a command, injunction, requirement, "He gave him a charge" (Genesis 28:6); "His father charged the people with the oath" (1 Samuel 14:27); "Jesus strictly (m "sternly") charged them" (Matthew 9:30); "I charge you by the Lord" (1 Thessalonians 5:27 the King James Version, the Revised Version (British and American) "adjure"); "having received such a charge" (Acts 16:24, paraggelia, "private or extra message"); "This charge I commit unto thee" (1 Timothy 1:18); (5) of blame, responsibility, reckoning, "Lord, lay not this sin to their charge" (Acts 7:60); "nothing laid to his charge" (Acts 23:29); "Who shall lay anything to the charge of God's elect?" (Romans 8:33).
M. O. Evans
Charger
Charger - char'-jer (the American Standard Revised Version "platter"): A word which meant in the older English speech a flat dish or platter. It is used in the Bible as the translation (1) of qe`arah, which in Numbers 7:19 the King James Version (the Revised Version (British and American) "platter") and repeatedly in that chapter denotes one of the gifts made by the several princes at the dedication of the tabernacle; (2) of 'agharTal, a word of uncertain derivation used in Ezra 1:9 (the King James Version) twice to designate certain temple vessels which might better be called "libation bowls"; (3) of pinax, used Matthew 14:8, 11; Mark 6:25, 28 (EV) for the dish in which the head of John the Baptist was presented.
David Foster Estes
Charges
Charges - char'-jiz (dapanao, "to spend"): "Be at charges for them" (Acts 21:24, the King James Version "with them"), i.e. pay the sacrificial expenses of these poorer Nazirites (compare Josephus, Ant,XIX , xvi, 1).
Chariot
Chariot - char'-i-ot (merkabh, merkabhah, "riding-chariot," rekhebh, "war-chariot"; harma):
1. Chariots of Egypt
2. Chariots of the Canaanites
3. Chariots of Solomon and Later Kings
4. Chariots of the Assyrians
5. Chariots of Chaldeans, Persians, Greeks
6. In the New Testament
7. Figurative Use
LITERATURE
1. Chariots of Egypt: It is to the chariots of ancient Egypt that reference is first made in Scripture. Joseph was honored by being made to ride in the second chariot of King Pharaoh (Genesis 41:43). Joseph paid honor to his father on his arrival in Goshen by meeting him in his chariot (Genesis 46:29). In the state ceremonial with which the remains of Jacob were escorted to Canaan, chariots and horsemen were conspicuous (Genesis 50:9). In the narrative of the departure of the Israelites from Egypt and of Pharaoh's futile attempts to detain them the chariots and horsemen of Pharaoh figure largely (Exodus 14:17-18, 23, 15; 4, 19). It was with the Hyksos invasion, some centuries before the Exodus, that the horse, and subsequently the chariot, were introduced for purposes of war into Egypt; and it may have been the possession of chariots that enabled those hated shepherd warriors to overpower the native Egyptians. The Egyptian chariot was distinguished by its lightness of build. It was so reduced in weight that it was possible for a man to carry his chariot on his shoulders without fatigue. The ordinary chariot was made of wood and leather, and had only two occupants, the fighting man and his shield-bearer. The royal chariots were ornamented with gold and silver, and in the battle of Megiddo Thothmes III is represented as standing in his chariot of electrum like the god of war, brandishing his lance. In the battle the victorious Egyptians captured 2,041 horses and 924 chariots from the Syrian allies.
2. Chariots of the Canaanites: The Canaanites had long been possessed of horses and chariots when Joshua houghed their horses and burnt their chariots with fire at the waters of Merom (Joshua 11:6, 9). The chariots of iron which the Canaanites could maneuvere in the plains and valleys proved a formidable obstacle to the Complete conquest of the land (Judges 1:19). Jabin had 900 chariots of iron, and with them he was able to oppress the children of Israel twenty years (Judges 4:3). The Philistines of the low country and the maritime plain, of whom we read in Judges and Samuel, were a warlike people, were disciplined and well armed and their possession of chariots gave them a great advantage over the Israelites. In the war of Michmash they put into the field the incredible number of 30,000 chariots and 6,000 horsemen, only in the end to suffer a grievous defeat (1 Samuel 13:5; 14:20). In the battle of Gilboa, however, the chariots and horsemen of the Philistines bore down all opposition, and proved the destruction of Saul and his house. Of these chariots there have come down to us no detailed description and no representation. But we cannot be far wrong in turning to the chariot of the Hittites as a type of the Canaanite and Philistine chariot. It is not from the monuments of the Hittites themselves, however, but from the representations of the Kheta of the Egyptian monuments, that we know what their chariots were like. Their chariotry was their chief arm of offense. The Hittite chariot was used, too, for hunting; but a heavier car with paneled sides was employed for war. The Egyptian monuments represent three Hittites in each car, a practice which differed from that of Egypt and attracted attention. Of the three, one guided the chariot, another did the fighting with sword and lance, and the third was the shield-bearer.
3. Chariots of Solomon and Later Kings: The Israelites living in a mountainous country were tardy in adopting the chariot for purposes of war. David houghed all the chariot horses of Hadadezer, king of Zobah, and "reserved of them for a hundred chariots" (2 Samuel 8:4), and Adonijah prepared for himself chariots and horsemen with a view to contest the throne of his father (1 Kings 1:5). But Solomon was the first in Israel to acquire chariots and horses on a national scale, and to build cities for their accommodation (1 Kings 9:19). In Massoretic Text of the Old Testament we read that Solomon had agents who received droves of horses from Egypt, and it is added: "And a chariot came up and went out of Egypt for 600 shekels of silver, and a horse for 150; and so for all the kings of the Hittites, and for the kings of Syria, did they bring them out by their means" (1 Kings 10:29). On the strength of a warrantable emendation of the text it is now proposed to read the preceding (1 Kings 10:28): "And Solomon's import of horses was from Mucri and from Kue; the king's traders received them from Kue at a price"--where Mucri and Kue are North Syria and Cilicia. No doubt it was Egypt out of which the nation was forbidden by the Deuteronomic law to multiply horses (Deuteronomy 17:16), but on the other hand the statement of Ezek (Deuteronomy 27:14) that Israel derived horses, chargers and mules not from Egypt but from Togarmah--North Syria and Asia Minor--agrees with the new rendering (Burney, Notes on Hebrew Text of the Books of Kings, in the place cited.). From Solomon's time onward chariots were in use in both kingdoms. Zimri, who slew Elah, son of Baasha, king of Israel, was captain of half his chariots (1 Kings 16:9). It was when sitting in his chariot in disguise beside the driver that Ahab received his fatal wound at Ramoth-gilead (1 Kings 22:34). The floor of the royal chariot was a pool of blood, and "they washed the chariot by the pool of Samaria" (1 Kings 22:35, 38). It was in his war-chariot that his servants carried Josiah dead from the fatal field of Megiddo (2 Kings 23:30). The chief pieces of the Hebrew chariot were (1) the pole to which the two horses were yoked, (2) the axle--resting upon two wheels with six or eight spokes (1 Kings 7:33)--into which the pole was fixed, (3) a frame or body open behind, standing upon the axle and fitted by a leather band to the pole. The chariots of iron of which we read (Judges 4:3) were of wood strengthened or studded with iron. Like that of the Hittite, the Hebrew chariot probably carried three men, although in the chariot of Ahab (1 Kings 22:34) and in that of Jehu (2 Kings 9:24 f) we read of only two.
4. Chariots of the Assyrians: In the later days when the Assyrians overran the lands of the West, the Israelites had to face the chariots and the hosts of Sennacherib and of the kings (2 Kings 19:23). And they faced them with chariots of their own. An inscription of Shalmaneser II of Assyria tells how in the battle of Karkar (854 BC) Ahab of the land of Israel had put into the field 2,000 chariots and 10,000 soldiers. But the Assyrian chariotry was too numerous and powerful for Israel. The Assyrian chariot was larger and heavier than the Egyptian or the Hebrew: it had usually three and sometimes four occupants (Maspero, Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria, 322). When we read in Nahum's prophecy of "chariots flashing with steel," "rushing to and fro in the broad ways" (Nahum 2:3-4), it is of the Assyrian chariots that we are to think being hastily got together for the defense of Nineveh.
5. Chariots of Chaldeans, Persians, Greeks: In early Babylonian inscriptions of the 3rd millennium before Christ there is evidence of the use of the war-chariots, and Nebuchadrezzar in his campaigns to the West had chariots as part of his victorious host (Jeremiah 47:3). It was the Persians who first employed scythed chariots in war; and we find Antiochus Eupator in the Seleucid period equipping a Greek force against Judea which had 300 chariots armed with scythes (2 Maccabees 13:2).
6. In the New Testament: In the New Testament the chariot is only twice mentioned. Besides the chariot in which the Ethiopian eunuch was traveling when Philip the evangelist made up to him (Acts 8:28-29, 38), there is only the mention of the din of war-chariots to which the onrush of locusts in Apocalyptic vision is compared (Revelation 9:9).
7. Figurative Use: In the figurative language of Scripture, the chariot has a place. It is a tribute to the powerful influence of Elijah and Elisha when they are separately called "the chariots of Israel and the horsemen thereof" (2 Kings 2:12; 13:14). The angelic hosts are declared to be God's chariots, twice ten thousand, thousands upon thousands (Psalms 68:17). But chariots and horses themselves are a poor substitute for the might of God (Psalms 20:7). God Himself is represented as riding upon His chariots of salvation for the defense of His people (Habakkuk 3:8). In the Book of Zec, the four chariots with their horses of various colors have an apocalyptic significance (Zechariah 6:1-15). In the worship of the host of heaven which prevailed in the later days of the kingdom of Judah, "the chariots of the sun" (see article) were symbols which led the people into gross idolatry and King Josiah burnt them with fire (2 Kings 23:11).
LITERATURE.
Nowack, Hebrew Archaeology, I, 366 f; Garstang, Land of the Hittites, 363 f; Maspero, Struggle of the Nations and Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria; Rawlinson, Five Great Monarchies, II, 1-21.
T. Nicol.
Chariots of the Sun
Chariots of the Sun - (markebhoth ha-shemesh): These, together with "horses of the sun," are mentioned in 2 Kings 23:11. They are said to have stood in the temple, a gift of the kings of Judah. Josiah removed the horses from the precincts of the temple and burned the chariots. Among the Greeks, Helios was endowed with horses and chariots. Thus the course of the sun as he sped across the skies was understood by the mythological mind of antiquity. The Babylonian god Shamash (= Hebrew Shemesh) likewise had his chariot and horses as well as his charioteer. The cult of the sun and other heavenly bodies which was particularly in vogue during the latter days of the Judean monarchy (compare 2 Kings 23:5; Ezekiel 8:16 f; Deuteronomy 17:3; Jeremiah 8:2) seems to have constituted an element of the Canaanitish religion (compare the names of localities like Beth-shemesh and the like). The chariots of the sun are also referred to in Enoch 72:5,37; 75:4, and Greek Apocrypha of Baruch 6.
Max L. Margolis
Charitably
Charitably - char'-i-ta-bli (kata agapen): The Revised Version (British and American), which substitutes "love" for "charity" regularly, removing the latter word from the vocabulary of Scripture, makes a like change in Romans 14:15, the only occurrence of "charitably" in the King James Version; the Revised Version (British and American) "in love."
See CHARITY.